The pulmonary and systemic circulations are arranged in series.
Systemic circulation to different organ systems is arranged in parallel.
Heart, blood vessels, and blood.
Primary and Secondary
Congenital and Acquired
As a consequence of non-cardiovascular disorders or diseases
A portal system involves two capillary beds.
Cardiovascular function is essential for life and health because any impairment leads to dysfunction.
The primary function of the CVS is transport of O2 and CO2, nutrients, hormones, waste products, and heat.
In general, blood only passes through one set of capillaries before returning to the heart.
Camelid erythrocytes are oval, flat, and lack central pallor, unlike the typical biconcave disc observed in most mammals.
No, mammalian red blood cells lack nuclei and organelles.
Na+ and Cl- are the dominant electrolytes in plasma.
Red blood cells are flexible and able to deform.
The fraction of total volume represented by erythrocytes.
From the division of nucleated stem cells.
Albumin helps maintain fluid balance.
In the bone marrow.
An anaesthetic overdose can depress the central nervous system and, in the case of barbiturates, also depress the heart's ability to pump.
It is recycled; iron is reused and the rest is converted to bilirubin.
Oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), nutrients, hormones, waste products, and heat.
Haemoglobin (Hb)
In horses, splenic contraction occurs during exercise.
Blood is classified as a type of specialized connective tissue.
The primary function of red blood cells is the transport of O2 and CO2.
Using a microhematocrit or automated analyser.
Decreased PaO2 and renal hypoxia
Fibrinogen is important in blood clotting and inflammation.
Aa and Qa.
Blood maintains pH balance by using buffers to neutralize acids and bases, ensuring that the pH of body fluids remains within a narrow, healthy range.
MCH is calculated using the formula: [Hb] (x10g/l) / RBC (x10^12/l).
Normal haematocrit levels are around 40%.
Biconcave discs
Low total plasma protein levels may be caused by loss of protein via the kidneys (protein losing nephropathy), loss of protein via the gastrointestinal system (protein losing enteropathy), loss of lymph, chronic or severe blood loss, or lack of plasma protein production by the liver.
In the liver and spleen.
Anisocytosis is the variation in red blood cell size.
Cattle commonly exhibit anisocytosis.
Erythropoietin.
Causes of anaemia include iron deficiency, vitamin B12 deficiency, chronic diseases, and genetic conditions like sickle cell anaemia.
Valve defects and defects of the wall of the heart.
Donor RBCs are mixed with recipient plasma.
Globulin is important in immune responses.
The primary functions of blood include transportation of gases, nutrients, and waste products; regulation of body temperature, pH, and fluid balance; and protection against infections and blood loss.
Anaemia is a condition characterized by a deficiency in the number or quality of red blood cells, which leads to reduced oxygen transport in the body.
The metabolic machinery of RBCs declines with age because they lack DNA and RNA, which are required for protein synthesis.
Blood transports nutrients from the digestive system to cells throughout the body and carries waste products from cells to the kidneys, liver, and lungs for excretion.
An abnormally low MCH or MCHC indicates a deficit in haemoglobin synthesis.
Transportation, homeostasis/regulation, and protection.
Conditions such as dehydration, splenic contraction, response to living at altitude, and blood doping & EPO administration can lead to increased haematocrit levels.
Approximately 5 – 9 g/dl.
Clotting disorders.
Plasma comprises 92% water, 7% protein, and 1% other substances.
Goats and cattle commonly exhibit poikilocytosis.
The relative proportion of red blood cells to plasma.
Anaemia is diagnosed through a complete blood count (CBC) test, which measures levels of red blood cells, hemoglobin, and hematocrit.
The average concentration of hemoglobin in a given volume of blood.
Examples include haemorrhage due to trauma, acquired clotting disorders, primary cardiac diseases such as myocarditis, myopathy, acquired valvular disease, and parasitic infections like heartworm (Dirofilaria immitis) and Strongylus vulgaris.
Plasma comprises 92% water, 7% protein, and 1% other substances.
The production of red blood cells (RBCs).
Deficiencies in protein, iron, copper, and B vitamins (B2, B6, B9 (folic acid), and B12) can affect hemoglobin content.
Changes in the total number of cells or the size of cells.
It increases RBC mass
Blood helps regulate body temperature by distributing heat throughout the body and by increasing or decreasing the flow of blood to the skin, where heat can be lost or retained.
Septic shock or endotoxaemia is a condition where bacterial infection (bacteraemia) is present in the bloodstream.
Invert the tube several times.
By regulating body temperature and pH levels.
The formation of blood cellular components.
Non-mammals such as birds, lizards, fish, and frogs have nucleated red blood cells.
To detect the presence of haemagglutinating and haemolysing antibodies in the plasma of donor and recipient animals.
Older red blood cells are less flexible.
Oxygen is transported via haemoglobin (oxyhaemoglobin).
AB.
In cats, RBCs have a lifespan of 2 months, while in cattle, they have a lifespan of 6 months.
Syringe and needle or self-drawing evacuated tubes (Vacutainers).
Damaged erythrocytes are engulfed by macrophages in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow.
Hct stands for haematocrit and is expressed as a fractional value (e.g., 0.55 instead of 55%).
High total plasma protein levels may indicate haemoconcentration (e.g., dehydration) or increased globulin production (e.g., inflammation or infection).
Packed cell volume (PCV)
Donor plasma is mixed with recipient RBCs.
Within the bone marrow.
The concentration of hemoglobin in whole blood.
Blood protects the body by clotting to prevent blood loss and by carrying white blood cells and antibodies that fight infections.
As RBCs age, their cell membrane becomes more fragile and they may rupture as they pass through capillaries, especially in the spleen.
Conditions such as haemorrhage, haemolysis, iron deficiency, bone marrow disorder, chronic renal disease, and overhydration can lead to decreased haematocrit levels.
Cells can be separated from the plasma by centrifugation.
4 – 9μm
They are abnormalities in the structure of the major blood vessels present from birth.
In the kidneys
Aa 1 and Aa 2.
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA).
Hemoglobin levels are measured to determine the severity of anaemia, as hemoglobin is the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen.
Immunity and clotting.
The matrix of blood is called plasma.
The activity of erythropoietic cells is greatly affected by nutritional status.
Red blood cells have a limited lifespan of 2 to 6 months.
Alloantigens on the surface of erythrocytes.
Secondary cardiovascular dysfunctions arise as a result of disease or disorder elsewhere in the body.
Severe vomiting or diarrhea can lead to loss of water and electrolytes, which can cause cardiac arrhythmias and heart failure.
The average volume (size) of red blood cells.
Deviations from normal haematocrit affect the blood's ability to carry oxygen.
They develop by mitosis and differentiation from stem cells.
They are flatter.
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Poikilocytosis is the variation in red blood cell shape.
The total number of red blood cells per unit volume of blood.
Liquid blood.
Common symptoms of anaemia include fatigue, weakness, pale skin, shortness of breath, and dizziness.
The amount of hemoglobin per red blood cell.
When erythrocytes are degraded, heme is converted to bilirubin and iron is reused.
Haematocrit affects the viscosity of blood, which in turn affects the resistance to flow and the effort that must be exerted by the heart.
Anaemia is associated with haematocrit levels of 10%, 20%, and 30%.
By dividing the body weight by 12.
RBCs are stored in the spleen.
A refractometer.
The suspended cells in blood are red blood cells (RBCs; erythrocytes), white blood cells (WBCs; leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes).
Because they have no nucleus.
Carbon dioxide can be transported in solution, as bicarbonate, or bound to protein (carbamino compounds).
Approximately 120 days.
In the spleen and liver.
MCHC measures the concentration of haemoglobin in a given volume of packed red blood cells, calculated as [Hb] / Hct.
Polycythaemia is associated with haematocrit levels of 50%, 60%, and 70%.
