p.1
Overview of Physiology
What is physiology?
The science that explains the physical and chemical mechanisms responsible for the origin, development, and progression of life.
p.8
Control Systems and Feedback Mechanisms
What is feed-forward control?
A mechanism used by the brain to cause required muscle contractions without waiting for nerve signals to return.
p.8
Physiological Variability
What physiological variables show wide variation among individuals?
Body weight and adiposity.
p.2
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
What is the significance of the term 'pathophysiology'?
It explains how physiological processes are altered in diseases or injury.
p.6
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
What is the effect of increased potassium ion concentration?
The heart muscle is likely to be severely depressed.
p.3
Extracellular Fluid and Internal Environment
What is the primary function of blood capillaries in the human body?
To facilitate the continual exchange of extracellular fluid between blood plasma and interstitial fluid.
p.6
Control Systems and Feedback Mechanisms
What is the formula for calculating the gain of a control system?
Gain = Correction / Error.
p.4
Role of the Nervous and Hormonal Systems
What are the three major parts of the nervous system?
Sensory input portion, central nervous system (integrative portion), and motor output portion.
p.6
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
What happens if potassium ion concentration decreases to less than one-third normal?
Paralysis may result from the inability of the nerves to carry signals.
p.7
Control Systems and Feedback Mechanisms
What role does positive feedback have in generating nerve signals?
It causes a slight leak of sodium ions that leads to an explosion of sodium entering the nerve fiber, creating an action potential.
p.3
Extracellular Fluid and Internal Environment
What drives the diffusion of fluid and dissolved molecules in capillaries?
The kinetic motion of the molecules in the plasma and interstitial fluid.
p.2
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
What is homeostasis?
The maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the internal environment.
p.7
Control Systems and Feedback Mechanisms
What happens when a person bleeds 2 liters of blood?
It can lead to a positive feedback cycle that results in death due to decreased heart pumping effectiveness.
p.5
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
What is the primary purpose of the body's control systems?
To maintain the automaticity and continuity of life.
p.5
Control Systems and Feedback Mechanisms
What initiates negative feedback mechanisms to raise arterial pressure?
A decrease in arterial pressure below normal.
p.8
Control Systems and Feedback Mechanisms
What is adaptive control in physiology?
A process that acts as delayed negative feedback, allowing the brain to correct movements based on previous performance.
p.4
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
What is one of the liver's functions related to waste removal?
Detoxification or removal of ingested drugs and chemicals, which are secreted into bile for elimination.
p.8
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
What happens when functional systems lose their ability to contribute to homeostasis?
All cells of the body suffer, leading to sickness or death.
p.4
Role of the Nervous and Hormonal Systems
What role do hormones play in the body?
They regulate cellular functions and metabolic processes, complementing the nervous system.
p.5
Control Systems and Feedback Mechanisms
How does the respiratory system help regulate carbon dioxide levels?
By increasing the rate of breathing when carbon dioxide concentration is high.
p.3
Extracellular Fluid and Internal Environment
How far can most cells be located from a capillary?
Few cells are located more than 50 micrometers from a capillary.
p.1
Overview of Physiology
What are the subdivisions of physiology?
Viral physiology, bacterial physiology, cellular physiology, plant physiology, invertebrate physiology, vertebrate physiology, mammalian physiology, and human physiology.
p.7
Control Systems and Feedback Mechanisms
What is the gain of the baroreceptor system for arterial pressure control?
-2, meaning disturbances affect arterial pressure only one-third as much with the control system present.
p.5
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
What is the role of hemoglobin in oxygen regulation?
Hemoglobin combines with oxygen in the lungs and releases it based on tissue fluid concentration.
p.1
Control Systems and Feedback Mechanisms
What role do control systems play in human physiology?
They coordinate functions of cells, tissues, and organs, allowing the body to respond to various stimuli.
p.4
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
What is the role of the lungs in the removal of metabolic end products?
They release carbon dioxide from the blood into lung alveoli, which is then expelled into the atmosphere.
p.7
Control Systems and Feedback Mechanisms
How effective is the temperature control system compared to the baroreceptor system?
The gain of the temperature control system is about -33, making it much more effective than the baroreceptor system.
p.2
Extracellular Fluid and Internal Environment
What are the two stages of extracellular fluid transport?
Movement of blood through blood vessels and movement between blood capillaries and intercellular spaces.
p.6
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
What can happen when glucose concentration falls below one-half normal?
Extreme mental irritability and sometimes convulsions.
p.3
Extracellular Fluid and Internal Environment
What nutrients are absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract into the extracellular fluid?
Carbohydrates, fatty acids, and amino acids.
p.3
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
What waste products does the liver eliminate?
Certain waste products produced in the body and toxic substances that are ingested.
p.8
Control Systems and Feedback Mechanisms
What are the two more complex types of control systems discussed in physiology?
Feed-forward and adaptive control.
p.4
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
How does the musculoskeletal system contribute to homeostasis?
It enables body movement to obtain food for nutrition and provides motility for protection against adverse surroundings.
p.2
Extracellular Fluid and Internal Environment
What are the main ions found in extracellular fluid?
Sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate ions.
p.8
Overview of Physiology
What is the main purpose of the chapter on physiology?
To discuss the overall organization of the body and how different parts operate in harmony to maintain homeostasis.
p.4
Immune and Integumentary Systems
What components make up the immune system?
White blood cells, tissue cells, thymus, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels.
p.7
Control Systems and Feedback Mechanisms
How does positive feedback relate to negative feedback in physiological processes?
Positive feedback can be part of an overall negative feedback process, such as in blood clotting and nerve signal generation.
p.1
Microbiota and Human Health
What is microbiota?
Communities of microorganisms that inhabit the body and can provide vital functions for survival.
p.8
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
What is homeostasis?
The maintenance of a stable internal environment in the body.
p.4
Reproductive Physiology
How does reproduction contribute to homeostasis?
By generating new beings to replace those that are lost, thus maintaining population stability.
p.6
Control Systems and Feedback Mechanisms
How does the body respond to high carbon dioxide concentration?
It increases pulmonary ventilation to decrease carbon dioxide concentration.
p.3
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
What functions do other organs like kidneys and endocrine glands serve in relation to absorbed substances?
They help modify or store absorbed substances until needed.
p.2
Extracellular Fluid and Internal Environment
What is the role of extracellular fluid in relation to cells?
It provides ions and nutrients needed for cell survival.
p.4
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
How do the kidneys filter blood?
By filtering plasma through glomerular capillaries into tubules and reabsorbing necessary substances back into the blood.
p.6
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
What can an increase in body temperature of 11°F (7°C) lead to?
A vicious cycle of increasing cellular metabolism that destroys the cells.
p.3
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
What is the role of the liver in nutrient processing?
The liver changes the chemical compositions of absorbed substances to more usable forms.
p.1
Human Physiology and Control Systems
What does human physiology focus on?
The specific characteristics and mechanisms of the human body that make it a living being.
p.8
Physiological Variability
What is the significance of physiological variability?
It is important for understanding normal physiology and the pathophysiology of diseases.
p.7
Control Systems and Feedback Mechanisms
Why do most control systems in the body operate by negative feedback?
Because positive feedback leads to instability and can cause death.
p.1
Microbiota and Human Health
What is the significance of gut microbiota?
They play roles in digestion, nutrition, immunity, and other essential functions.
p.6
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
What occurs when calcium ion concentration falls below about one-half normal?
Tetanic contraction of muscles throughout the body due to excess nerve impulses.
p.3
Extracellular Fluid and Internal Environment
What is the permeability characteristic of capillary walls?
Capillary walls are permeable to most molecules in blood plasma, except for plasma proteins.
p.5
Control Systems and Feedback Mechanisms
What are baroreceptors and where are they located?
Nerve receptors in the carotid arteries and aorta that respond to arterial wall stretch.
p.3
Human Physiology and Control Systems
How thick is the alveolar membrane that facilitates oxygen diffusion?
The alveolar membrane is only 0.4 to 2.0 micrometers thick.
p.8
Physiological Variability
How does aging affect total body water percentage?
It gradually decreases as a person ages, partly due to declining skeletal muscle mass and increasing fat mass.
p.7
Control Systems and Feedback Mechanisms
What is an example of positive feedback that is beneficial?
Blood clotting, where enzymes activate more clotting factors to stop bleeding.
p.4
Immune and Integumentary Systems
What functions does the integumentary system serve?
It protects deeper tissues, regulates temperature, excretes wastes, and provides sensory interface with the external environment.
p.5
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
Why is maintaining normal ranges of extracellular fluid constituents important?
Values outside normal ranges can lead to illness, injury, or death.
p.4
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
What substances do the kidneys remove from the plasma?
They remove metabolic end products like urea and uric acid, as well as excess ions and water.
p.2
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
How does the body maintain sodium and hydrogen ion concentrations?
Through powerful control systems.
p.7
Control Systems and Feedback Mechanisms
How does positive feedback play a role in childbirth?
Uterine contractions stretch the cervix, sending signals that cause even stronger contractions.
p.5
Control Systems and Feedback Mechanisms
What happens when arterial pressure rises too high?
Baroreceptors send signals to the brain to decrease heart activity and dilate blood vessels.
p.3
Human Physiology and Control Systems
What role does the respiratory system play in nutrient acquisition?
It allows blood to pick up oxygen in the alveoli, which is essential for cells.
p.6
Control Systems and Feedback Mechanisms
What does a high gain in a control system indicate?
A more effective maintenance of constant conditions.
p.5
Homeostasis and Its Mechanisms
What is the oxygen-buffering function of hemoglobin?
It regulates oxygen concentration in tissues based on the chemical affinity for oxygen.
