p.1
Continental Drift Theory
What is the Continental Drift Hypothesis?
It suggests that continents were once a single landmass that drifted apart over time.
p.2
Contraction and Expansion Hypotheses
What was the basis for Jeffreys' development of the Contraction Hypothesis?
The thermal history of the Earth.
p.2
Contraction and Expansion Hypotheses
What did Jeffreys propose about the mantle below 700 km?
It was neither cooling nor changing in volume.
p.2
Contraction and Expansion Hypotheses
What is the state of the outermost layer of the Earth according to the Contraction Hypothesis?
About 100 km had already cooled to reach equilibrium and was not changing in volume.
p.1
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What does the Oscillation and Undation Theory explain?
It explains mountain formation through the rise and fall of land due to tectonic forces.
p.1
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What is the Convection Current Hypothesis?
It posits that convection currents in the Earth's mantle drive the movement of tectonic plates, leading to mountain formation.
p.1
Contraction and Expansion Hypotheses
What is the Contraction Hypothesis in mountain building?
It suggests that the Earth cools and contracts, leading to the formation of mountains.
p.1
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What is the Theory of Plate Tectonics?
It integrates various hypotheses to explain the movement of Earth's plates and the formation of mountains.
p.2
Contraction and Expansion Hypotheses
Who proposed the Contraction Hypothesis?
Warison in the 19th century, later developed by Jeffreys in 1929.
p.1
Contraction and Expansion Hypotheses
What does the Expansion Hypothesis propose?
It proposes that the Earth expands due to heat, causing mountains to form.
p.53
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
How many major tectonic plates is the lithosphere divided into?
15 major tectonic plates.
p.37
Continental Drift Theory
Where are cratons usually found?
Deep in the interior of most continents.
p.119
Mineral Properties and Classification
Why are minerals colored?
Because certain wavelengths of light are absorbed.
p.51
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the depth range of the upper mantle?
From the crust to about 410 kilometers (255 miles).
p.140
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What are the two broad categories of forces affecting the Earth's crust?
Endogenetic forces and exogenetic forces.
p.30
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the average thickness of oceanic crust?
5-10 kilometers (3-6 miles) beneath the ocean floor.
p.9
Continental Drift Theory
What does the term 'Laurasia' refer to?
A supercontinent formed from a combination of Laurentia (Canada) and Asia.
p.79
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What is the correct order of mass movements in increasing order of velocity?
D. Earth creep, B. Earth flow, C. Debris flow, A. Rock fall.
p.130
Mineral Properties and Classification
How is specific gravity calculated?
By measuring volume with water displacement in a graduated cylinder and the mass.
p.38
Continental Drift Theory
How does the age of continental crust compare to oceanic crust?
Continental crust is almost always much older than oceanic crust.
p.51
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What contributes to tectonic activity in the upper mantle?
The more malleable regions.
p.56
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What happens to the density of rocks in the transition zone?
Rocks become much more dense.
p.56
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the depth range of the mantle's transition zone?
From about 410 kilometers (255 miles) to 660 kilometers (410 miles) beneath Earth's surface.
p.37
Continental Drift Theory
What are cratons?
The oldest and most stable part of the continental lithosphere.
p.51
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
Is the upper mantle solid or liquid?
Mostly solid, but has more malleable regions.
p.119
Mineral Properties and Classification
What happens to a mineral's color if light is not absorbed?
The mineral is colorless in reflected or refracted light.
p.69
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What temperature can be found at the Bullen discontinuity?
6,000° Celsius (10,800° Fahrenheit).
p.52
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the lithosphere?
The solid, outer part of Earth, extending to a depth of about 100 kilometers (62 miles).
p.50
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
How does heat and pressure change in the mantle?
Heat and pressure generally increase with depth.
p.56
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
Do rocks melt or disintegrate in the transition zone?
No, they do not melt or disintegrate.
p.135
Mineral Properties and Classification
What minerals are common to felsic rocks?
Orthoclase feldspar, muscovite mica, and quartz.
p.52
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What does the lithosphere include?
Both the crust and the brittle upper portion of the mantle.
p.103
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the correct increasing order of rocks by percent volume in the Earth's crust?
B, C, A (Sedimentary rocks, Metamorphic rocks, Igneous rocks).
p.53
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
Name three major tectonic plates.
North American, South American, and Pacific plates.
p.30
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What type of rock predominantly composes the oceanic crust?
Different types of basalts.
p.113
Mineral Properties and Classification
What is mineralogy?
The branch of science that deals with the physico-chemical study of naturally occurring solid and crystalline materials.
p.50
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the temperature range of the mantle?
From 1000°C (1832°F) near the crust to 3700°C (6692°F) near the core.
p.62
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What is a mantle plume?
An upwelling of superheated rock from the mantle.
p.38
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
Why is continental crust rarely destroyed?
Because it is rarely recycled in the process of subduction.
p.75
Types of Faults and Their Characteristics
What are the types of faults responsible for earthquakes?
Normal fault, Thrust fault, Strike slip fault, Oblique slip fault.
p.51
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What two parts of the upper mantle are recognized as distinct regions?
The lithosphere and the asthenosphere.
p.47
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the mantle?
The mostly solid bulk of Earth's interior.
p.40
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the density of oceanic crust?
Almost 3 grams per cubic centimeter.
p.149
Types of Faults and Their Characteristics
What are symmetrical folds?
Simple folds with limbs that incline uniformly and are an example of open folds.
p.57
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What does the transition zone prevent?
Large exchanges of material between the upper and lower mantle.
p.57
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What do some geologists believe about the density of rocks in the transition zone?
It prevents subducted slabs from the lithosphere from falling further into the mantle.
p.127
Mineral Properties and Classification
What is tenacity in relation to minerals?
The tendency of a mineral to deform plastically under stress.
p.66
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
Why are many siderophiles classified as 'precious metals'?
Because they are found much more rarely in Earth's crust.
p.55
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What causes plate tectonics?
The very slow motion of lithospheric plates floating on the asthenosphere.
p.58
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the depth range of the lower mantle?
From about 660 kilometers (410 miles) to about 2,700 kilometers (1,678 miles) beneath Earth’s surface.
p.58
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
How does the temperature and density of the lower mantle compare to the upper mantle?
The lower mantle is hotter and denser than the upper mantle.
p.26
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What happens to the crust at Conservative Plate Margins?
The crust is neither created nor destroyed.
p.120
Mineral Properties and Classification
How do impurities affect the color of minerals?
The amount and type of impurities affect the color.
p.93
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
In which part of the atmosphere do jet streams occur?
In the upper limit of the troposphere.
p.134
Mineral Properties and Classification
What happens to olivine when magma cools further in the discontinuous branch?
It reacts with the residual magma and changes to pyroxene.
p.20
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What is the plate tectonic theory considered to be?
A comprehensive theory explaining many complexities.
p.33
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
Which plate subducts in the Japan Trench?
The dense Pacific plate subducts beneath the less-dense Okhotsk plate.
p.111
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What geological processes are responsible for mineral concentration in the crust?
Different geological processes.
p.142
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What types of movements are associated with endogenetic forces?
Horizontal and vertical movements.
p.95
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
Is Quartz a mineral found in basalts?
No, Quartz is not typically found in basalts.
p.146
Orogenetic and Epeirogenetic Movements
What do epeirogenetic movements cause?
Upliftment and subsidence of continental masses.
p.59
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is D Double-Prime (D’’)?
A shallow region beneath the lower mantle.
p.40
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What happens at mid-ocean ridges?
Tectonic plates are tearing apart from each other.
p.69
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the hottest part of the Earth's core?
The Bullen discontinuity.
p.59
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the characteristic of D’’ in some areas?
It is a nearly razor-thin boundary with the outer core.
p.50
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What processes in the mantle help determine the landscape of Earth?
The transfer of heat and material.
p.143
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What are the two major categories of endogenetic forces based on intensity?
Diastrophic forces and Sudden forces.
p.37
Continental Drift Theory
What characterizes shields?
Ancient basement rock crops out into the atmosphere.
p.59
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What accumulations can be found in D’’?
Thick accumulations of iron and silicates.
p.38
Continental Drift Theory
What is significant about some sections of continental crust?
Some sections are nearly as old as the Earth itself.
p.143
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What are diastrophic forces?
Forces related to slow, large-scale movements of the Earth's crust.
p.31
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the density of oceanic crust?
Almost 3 grams per cubic centimeter (1.7 ounces per cubic inch).
p.140
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What are exogenetic forces?
Forces that originate from outside the Earth.
p.69
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
How does the temperature at the Bullen discontinuity compare to the surface of the sun?
It is as hot as the surface of the sun.
p.68
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the thickness of the outer core?
About 2,200 kilometers (1,367 miles).
p.121
Mineral Properties and Classification
What elements are present in sapphires that contribute to their color?
Small amounts of titanium and iron.
p.107
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What is soil creep?
A gradual movement of soil down a slope.
p.135
Mineral Properties and Classification
Why are high temperature minerals unstable at the Earth's surface?
Because surface conditions are different from those under which they were created.
p.144
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What are sudden endogenetic forces?
Forces that come from deep within the earth and cause rapid events resulting in massive destruction.
p.46
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What happens when the balance of isostasy is disturbed?
Violent earth movements and tectonic events occur.
p.65
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What materials primarily make up the Earth's core?
Almost entirely metal, specifically iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni).
p.125
Mineral Properties and Classification
What does cleavage refer to in mineralogy?
The property of a mineral to break along planes where bond strength is low.
p.55
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What processes are associated with plate tectonics?
Continental drift, earthquakes, the formation of mountains, and volcanoes.
p.137
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What initiates the Bowen's Reaction Series?
Magma is heated until it melts.
p.56
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What happens to rocks in the transition zone?
They undergo radical transformations in their crystalline structure.
p.45
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What are some examples of relief features on Earth's surface?
Mountains, plateaus, plains, lakes, seas, oceans, faults, and rift valleys.
p.149
Types of Faults and Their Characteristics
How are symmetrical folds formed?
When compressive forces work regularly but with moderate intensity.
p.130
Mineral Properties and Classification
What is specific gravity?
A definite physical property calculated in g/cm3.
p.66
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
Where are siderophile elements found?
In the core of the Earth.
p.30
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
Why are basalts classified as 'sima' rocks?
Because they contain silicate and magnesium.
p.39
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What type of rock predominantly composes the oceanic crust?
Different types of basalts.
p.122
Mineral Properties and Classification
How does the streak of a mineral differ from its color?
The streak is usually constant while the color may vary.
p.143
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What are sudden forces?
Forces that cause rapid movements in the Earth's crust.
p.15
Types of Faults and Their Characteristics
Where are normal faults commonly found?
At divergent plate boundaries where the Earth's crust is stretching.
p.134
Mineral Properties and Classification
What does the continuous branch of Bowen's reaction series describe?
The evolution of plagioclase feldspars from calcium-rich to sodium-rich.
p.31
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What happens at mid-ocean ridges?
Tectonic plates are tearing apart from each other.
p.133
Mineral Properties and Classification
What is Bowen's Reaction Series?
A way of organizing minerals by the temperature at which they crystallize from magma.
p.7
Continental Drift Theory
Which time period did the Carboniferous times affect most of the southern continents?
Around 225 million years ago.
p.134
Mineral Properties and Classification
What minerals are formed in the discontinuous branch of Bowen's reaction series?
Olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite mica.
p.127
Mineral Properties and Classification
What is an example of a ductile mineral?
Gold, which deforms readily under stress.
p.52
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What does tectonic activity describe?
The interaction of the huge slabs of lithosphere called tectonic plates.
p.139
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What is the nature of change in geological processes?
Change is a law of nature.
p.32
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What is subduction?
A geologic process where a tectonic plate made of dense lithospheric material melts or falls below a less-dense plate.
p.118
Mineral Properties and Classification
Give an example of an allochromatic mineral and its color.
Amazonite (orthoclase) is blue.
p.67
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
Why are precise temperatures in the core difficult to determine?
Due to fluctuating temperatures depending on pressure, Earth's rotation, and varying composition of core elements.
p.139
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
How do forces affecting the Earth's crust impact the surface?
They often change the Earth's surface.
p.136
Mineral Properties and Classification
Which minerals are included in the continuous series?
Plagioclase feldspar and quartz.
p.6
Continental Drift Theory
What happened to Pangaea over time?
It fragmented into many smaller continents.
p.118
Mineral Properties and Classification
What characterizes the color of pseudochromatic minerals?
Color is variable but a unique property of the mineral.
p.97
Mineral Properties and Classification
Are ferromagnesian minerals resistant to weathering?
Yes, they are highly resistant to weathering and erosional processes.
p.146
Orogenetic and Epeirogenetic Movements
How do epeirogenetic forces affect the continent?
They affect larger parts of the continent.
p.3
Contraction and Expansion Hypotheses
What hypothesis did Carey propose in 1958 regarding the Earth's expansion?
The Expansion Hypothesis, suggesting that oceanic area and the globe are expanding.
p.140
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What are endogenetic forces?
Forces that originate from within the Earth.
p.39
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the thickness range of the oceanic crust?
5-10 kilometers (3-6 kilometers beneath the ocean floor).
p.50
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What geological activities are driven by the mantle?
Plate tectonics, volcanoes, seafloor spreading, earthquakes, and orogeny.
p.63
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What are xenoliths?
Rocks trapped inside another rock.
p.61
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What does mantle convection describe?
The movement of the mantle as it transfers heat from the core to the lithosphere.
p.127
Mineral Properties and Classification
What type of minerals are considered brittle?
Minerals like silicates and oxides that can be fractured under stress.
p.52
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What are the characteristics of the lithosphere?
It is both the coolest and the most rigid of Earth’s layers.
p.37
Continental Drift Theory
Why are shields and platforms important?
They provide crucial information about Earth’s early history and formation.
p.23
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What are constructive plate margins also known as?
Divergent plate margins or accreting plate margins.
p.63
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
Under what conditions do diamonds form?
In the upper mantle, at least 150 kilometers (93 miles) beneath the surface.
p.6
Continental Drift Theory
What term did Wegener use to describe the supercontinent?
Pangaea, meaning 'all lands'.
p.121
Mineral Properties and Classification
What color does tourmaline exhibit and what causes it?
A yellow-green color caused by electron exchange between manganese (Mn2+) and titanium (Ti4+).
p.120
Mineral Properties and Classification
What causes inherent color in minerals?
Essential elements present in the mineral.
p.22
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What are the three types of plate movements?
Divergent, convergent, and transform movements.
p.21
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
How has the plate tectonics theory impacted earth sciences?
It has revolutionized earth sciences similar to how DNA structure deciphering has impacted life sciences.
p.29
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the characteristic of the mantle?
Mostly solid rocks and minerals with malleable areas of semi-solid magma.
p.25
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What are destructive plate margins also known as?
Consuming plate margins or convergent plate margins.
p.22
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What is a divergent plate movement?
When two tectonic plates move away from each other.
p.8
Continental Drift Theory
What continents comprised Laurasia?
North America, Greenland, Europe, and Asia.
p.3
Contraction and Expansion Hypotheses
What causes the shearing forces between polar and equatorial regions?
The adjustment of angular momentum.
p.112
Mineral Properties and Classification
How many minerals have been discovered so far?
About 4000 plus minerals.
p.70
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the pressure in the inner core?
Nearly 3.6 million atmospheres (atm).
p.15
Types of Faults and Their Characteristics
How does the motion in a transform fault relate to its strike?
The motion is typically parallel to the fault’s strike.
p.30
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What does the term 'sima' refer to in geology?
Silicate and magnesium, the most abundant minerals in oceanic crust.
p.40
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
How is young oceanic crust formed?
From magma that wells up from rifts in Earth's surface and cools.
p.45
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What principle is suggested to maintain the balance of Earth's relief features?
A certain definite principle that maintains their present form.
p.149
Types of Faults and Their Characteristics
What characterizes asymmetrical folds?
Unequal and irregular limbs that incline at different angles.
p.11
Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis
Who proposed the hypothesis of sea-floor spreading?
Princeton geologist Harry Hess.
p.45
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
Why are Earth's relief features important?
They are balanced and maintained in their present form.
p.34
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
How do geologists collect samples of oceanic crust?
Through drilling at the ocean floor, using submersibles, and studying ophiolites.
p.117
Mineral Properties and Classification
What causes the color of idiochromatic minerals?
The presence of specific element(s) in their chemical composition.
p.145
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What do diastrophic forces include?
Both vertical and horizontal movements caused by forces deep within the Earth.
p.136
Mineral Properties and Classification
Which minerals are included in the discontinuous series?
Olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite.
p.135
Mineral Properties and Classification
Why are low temperature minerals more stable at the Earth's surface?
Because surface conditions are similar to those under which they formed.
p.145
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
How quickly do diastrophic forces operate?
Very slowly, with effects becoming discernible after thousands and millions of years.
p.54
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the asthenosphere?
The denser, weaker layer beneath the lithospheric mantle.
p.107
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What is a mudslide?
A rapid movement of saturated soil and debris down a slope.
p.35
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the primary composition of the continental crust?
Different types of granites.
p.34
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
Why are ophiolites significant for scientists?
They are often more accessible than oceanic crust at the bottom of the ocean.
p.17
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What does the Plate Tectonic Theory propose about the Earth's crust and upper mantle?
It is composed of several large, thin, relatively rigid plates that move relative to one another.
p.120
Mineral Properties and Classification
What is the color of Azurite attributed to?
Copper in its atomic structure.
p.145
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
Into what two groups are diastrophic movements subdivided?
Epeirogenetic movements and orogenetic movements.
p.67
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the temperature range of the Earth's core?
From about 4,400° Celsius (7,952° Fahrenheit) to about 6,000° Celsius (10,800° Fahrenheit).
p.33
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What occurs to the lithosphere as it subducts?
It sinks into the mantle and becomes more plastic and ductile.
p.23
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What happens to oceanic plates at mid-oceanic ridges?
They split apart and move in opposite directions.
p.63
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What are 'diamond pipes'?
Rocks called kimberlites and lamprolites that form from diamonds.
p.18
Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis
Where is new oceanic crust generated?
Along the active Mid Oceanic Ridges.
p.122
Mineral Properties and Classification
What is streak in mineralogy?
The color of the mineral in powdered form.
p.15
Types of Faults and Their Characteristics
What happens in a normal fault?
The hanging wall moves downward relative to the footwall.
p.3
Contraction and Expansion Hypotheses
What did Carey believe about the original diameter of the Earth?
It was less than half of its present size.
p.37
Continental Drift Theory
What characterizes platforms?
Basement rock is buried beneath overlying sediment.
p.149
Types of Faults and Their Characteristics
How do the limbs of asymmetrical folds differ?
One limb is larger with moderate and regular inclination, while the other is shorter with steep inclination.
p.130
Mineral Properties and Classification
What type of quantity is specific gravity?
A dimensionless quantity.
p.122
Mineral Properties and Classification
Why is streak useful in mineral identification?
Because it provides a more accurate illustration of the mineral's color.
p.119
Mineral Properties and Classification
What causes pleochroism in minerals?
Light traveling along crystallographic axes.
p.57
Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis
What can happen to material from the transition zone?
It can erupt as lava, become part of the lithosphere, or emerge as new oceanic crust.
p.139
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What are the two types of geological changes?
Short period and long period changes.
p.141
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What are the two types of movements caused by endogenetic forces?
Horizontal movements and vertical movements.
p.49
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
List some other elements found in the mantle.
Iron, aluminum, calcium, sodium, and potassium.
p.123
Mineral Properties and Classification
What is hardness in relation to minerals?
The resistance offered by a mineral's smooth surface on scratching.
p.3
Contraction and Expansion Hypotheses
How do the blocks of the Earth's crust tend to rotate in the southern hemisphere?
Sinistrally (anticlockwise).
p.26
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
How do the continents and oceans move?
With the movement of tectonic plates.
p.64
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
Where is the Earth's core located?
About 2,900 kilometers (1,802 miles) below Earth's surface.
p.70
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the temperature of the inner core?
About 5,200° Celsius (9,392° Fahrenheit).
p.21
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What phenomena can plate tectonics theory help explain?
Earthquakes and the spreading of the sea floor.
p.14
Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis
What role do tectonic plates play in the Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis?
Tectonic plates move apart at mid-ocean ridges, allowing magma to rise and create new crust.
p.33
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
How are mantle minerals recycled in the context of oceanic crust?
They surface as crust-making lava at mid-ocean ridges and volcanoes.
p.64
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the radius of the Earth's core?
About 3,485 kilometers (2,165 miles).
p.70
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
Why is the inner core not liquid or molten despite high temperatures?
The intense pressure prevents the iron from melting.
p.89
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
In what way does rainfall impact the boundary between fresh and salty groundwater?
Rainfall contributes to the recharge of freshwater aquifers, affecting the boundary.
p.113
Mineral Properties and Classification
What types of materials does mineralogy study?
Naturally occurring solid and crystalline materials.
p.115
Mineral Properties and Classification
What are silicates?
Compounds where silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) are abundant, major mineral components of the Earth's crust and mantle.
p.117
Mineral Properties and Classification
What are idiochromatic minerals?
Minerals that are 'self colored' due to their composition.
p.113
Mineral Properties and Classification
What aspects does mineralogy focus on?
Physico-chemical properties.
p.46
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What does isostasy refer to?
Mechanical stability between upstanding parts and low-lying basins on a rotating Earth.
p.119
Mineral Properties and Classification
What is pleochroism?
The phenomenon where a mineral displays more than one color when viewed at different angles.
p.61
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
How is the mantle heated?
From below by the white-hot core.
p.34
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What are ophiolites?
Sections of oceanic crust that have been forced above sea level through tectonic activity.
p.118
Mineral Properties and Classification
What are allochromatic minerals?
Minerals that have color due to impurities or structural defects.
p.3
Contraction and Expansion Hypotheses
What effect does worldwide expansion have on the Earth's crust?
It breaks the Earth's crust into blocks.
p.118
Mineral Properties and Classification
How is the color of allochromatic minerals described?
As a variable and unpredictable property.
p.68
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the viscosity of the liquid metal in the outer core?
Very low viscosity, meaning it is easily deformed and malleable.
p.95
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What are the main minerals that compose basalts?
A. Olivine, B. Pyroxene, E. Plagioclase.
p.136
Mineral Properties and Classification
What is the continuous series of minerals?
A series made up of minerals with similar compositions that crystallize one after the other.
p.97
Mineral Properties and Classification
Which options correctly describe ferromagnesian minerals?
(1) (A), (B) and (D) Only.
p.12
Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis
What hypothesis was tested by studies of the Earth's magnetism?
The hypothesis of sea-floor spreading.
p.137
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What occurs as the magma continues to cool?
Minerals with lower melting points begin to crystallize.
p.13
Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis
What are mid-oceanic ridges associated with according to the Sea Floor Spreading hypothesis?
Rising thermal convection currents from the mantle.
p.25
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What happens to the plates at destructive plate margins?
Two plates move towards each other and converge along a line.
p.95
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
Is Orthoclase a mineral found in basalts?
No, Orthoclase is not typically found in basalts.
p.17
Types of Faults and Their Characteristics
What happens along thrust faults?
Plate material is subducted or consumed in the mantle.
p.35
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the density of the continental crust?
About 2.7 grams per cubic centimeter (1.6 ounces per cubic inch).
p.48
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What happened to the mantle over millions of years?
It cooled and solidified.
p.62
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
How are hot spots different from other volcanic regions?
They are not created by plate tectonics.
p.65
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What are the primary contributors to heat in the Earth's core?
Decay of radioactive elements, leftover heat from planetary formation, and heat released as the liquid outer core solidifies.
p.7
Continental Drift Theory
What is the basis of Wegener's theory of Continental Drift?
Geological data, continuity of older structures, stratigraphic formations, and fossil fauna and flora across present continental shorelines.
p.68
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What are the primary components of the outer core?
Mostly liquid iron and nickel.
p.121
Mineral Properties and Classification
How does the electron transfer in sapphires affect their color?
It causes absorption of light in the yellow through red spectrum, producing a deep blue color.
p.68
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the temperature range of the outer core?
Between 4,500° and 5,500° Celsius (8,132° and 9,932° Fahrenheit).
p.122
Mineral Properties and Classification
Is streak or color more reliable for mineral identification?
Streak is more reliable than color.
p.125
Mineral Properties and Classification
What are regular flat faces in crystals a result of?
Perfect cleavage, as seen in minerals like calcite and mica.
p.137
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What happens as magma cools in the Bowen's Reaction Series?
Minerals begin to crystallize.
p.15
Types of Faults and Their Characteristics
Where do reverse faults typically occur?
At convergent plate boundaries where tectonic plates are colliding.
p.64
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the Earth's core?
The very hot, very dense center of our planet.
p.145
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What kind of landforms do diastrophic forces produce?
Meso-level reliefs such as mountains, plateaus, plains, lakes, and big faults.
p.70
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the radius of the inner core?
About 1,220 kilometers (758 miles).
p.8
Continental Drift Theory
What did Alexander Du Toit propose about Pangaea?
That it first broke into two large continental landmasses: Laurasia and Gondwanaland.
p.32
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
At what type of plate boundary does subduction occur?
At convergent plate boundaries.
p.123
Mineral Properties and Classification
What does the hardness of a mineral depend on?
The atomic structure of the mineral.
p.54
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
How does the ductility of the asthenosphere compare to the lithosphere?
The asthenosphere is much more ductile than the lithosphere.
p.15
Types of Faults and Their Characteristics
What occurs at a transform fault?
It forms the boundary between two tectonic plates and accommodates horizontal motion.
p.32
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
Which lithosphere subducts beneath the other at convergent boundaries?
The dense oceanic lithosphere subducts beneath the continental lithosphere.
p.67
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What are the two layers of the Earth's core?
The outer core and the inner core.
p.86
Mineral Properties and Classification
What is unique about Orthoclase's cleavage planes?
They are at right angles to each other.
p.89
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
How does the composition of groundwater influence the boundary between fresh and salty water?
The differing compositions of salty and fresh groundwater determine the boundary.
p.14
Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis
How does the Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis explain the age of oceanic crust?
The crust is younger near the mid-ocean ridges and older as you move away from them.
p.121
Mineral Properties and Classification
What is charge transfer in minerals?
The exchange of electrons between two or more elements.
p.135
Mineral Properties and Classification
Which minerals crystallize first in a mass of magma?
High temperature minerals.
p.9
Continental Drift Theory
What does 'Gondwanaland' mean?
Land of Gonds, named after an ancient tribe in Madhya Pradesh.
p.41
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What is subduction?
A geologic process where a dense tectonic plate melts or falls below a less-dense plate.
p.148
Orogenetic and Epeirogenetic Movements
What causes folds in the Earth's crust?
Tangential compressive force from horizontal movement due to endogenetic forces.
p.47
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
How thick is the mantle?
About 2,900 kilometers (1,802 miles).
p.127
Mineral Properties and Classification
What does it mean for a mineral to be sectile?
It can be cut with a knife.
p.11
Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis
What happens to the sea floor on each side of the mid-ocean ridge?
It moves towards the deep-sea trenches.
p.61
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What cools the mantle?
The lithosphere from above.
p.121
Mineral Properties and Classification
What causes the blue color in aquamarine?
Electron transfer from small amounts of iron in valence states Fe2+ and Fe3+ that absorbs red light.
p.39
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
Are basalts considered sima rocks?
Yes, basalts are sima rocks.
p.46
Historical Perspectives of Plate Tectonics
Who first proposed the concept of isostasy and when?
American geologist Dutton in 1859.
p.23
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What do constructive plate margins represent?
Zones of divergence with continuous upwelling of molten material.
p.125
Mineral Properties and Classification
What is meant by imperfect cleavage?
Cleavage that is less developed or parting.
p.14
Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis
What does the Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis propose?
It proposes that new oceanic crust is formed at mid-ocean ridges and spreads outward.
p.20
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What complexities does the plate tectonic theory explain?
Continental drift, volcanism, folding, faulting, and orogeny.
p.133
Mineral Properties and Classification
What does Bowen's Reaction Series explain?
Why certain types of minerals tend to be found together while others are not.
p.134
Mineral Properties and Classification
What is the final mineral that biotite mica forms from in the discontinuous branch?
It forms after amphibole during cooling.
p.26
Continental Drift Theory
When did the present shape and arrangement of continents and ocean basins begin to form?
Since the Carboniferous period.
p.4
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What did Haarman postulate in 1930 regarding the Earth's crust?
That disequilibrium in the layered Earth's crust was created due to vertical movements influenced by an undefined cosmic factor.
p.6
Continental Drift Theory
What did the smaller continents do after Pangaea fragmented?
They drifted across to acquire the present-day disposition of the continents.
p.129
Mineral Properties and Classification
How does a mineral with metallic luster appear?
Opaque and reflects like metals.
p.12
Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis
What is required for the growth of the ocean floor?
Formation of new crustal material.
p.49
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the common structure shared by silicates?
Silicon and oxygen structure.
p.47
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
Where does the mantle lie in relation to the Earth's core and crust?
Between Earth's dense, super-heated core and its thin outer layer, the crust.
p.136
Mineral Properties and Classification
What is the discontinuous series of minerals?
A series made up of minerals with different compositions that crystallize in a specific order.
p.49
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
Name three common silicates found in the mantle.
Olivine, garnet, and pyroxene.
p.3
Contraction and Expansion Hypotheses
According to Carey, what was the surface area of the Earth originally?
Less than a quarter of its present size.
p.115
Mineral Properties and Classification
How are a variety of silicate minerals produced?
By the (SiO4)4-tetrahedra linking to self-similar units sharing one, two, three, or all four corner oxygens.
p.107
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What is debris flow?
A rapid flow of loose mud and debris down a slope.
p.130
Mineral Properties and Classification
Do different minerals have the same specific gravity?
No, different minerals have different specific gravities.
p.15
Types of Faults and Their Characteristics
What characterizes a reverse fault?
The hanging wall moves upward relative to the footwall.
p.46
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What is the origin of the word 'isostasy'?
Derived from the German word 'isostasios', meaning 'in equipoise'.
p.55
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What is the source of lava that erupts from volcanic fissures?
The asthenosphere, melted into magma.
p.26
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What concept did H. Hess postulate in 1960?
The concept of 'plate tectonics'.
p.31
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
How does the age and density of oceanic crust change with distance from mid-ocean ridges?
They increase with distance.
p.63
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What happens to carbon above certain depth and pressure?
It crystallizes as graphite, not diamond.
p.93
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What is the width of the belt where jet streams are found?
A few hundred kilometers.
p.46
Historical Perspectives of Plate Tectonics
What was Dutton's view on isostasy?
He believed it indicated a state of balance between large upstanding areas of the Earth's surface and contiguous lowlands.
p.89
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What factors determine the boundary between fresh and salty groundwater along shorelines?
1. Recharge and discharge in freshwater aquifers. 2. Composition of salty and fresh groundwater. 3. Rainfall. 4. Nature of aquifer.
p.129
Mineral Properties and Classification
What does luster refer to in minerals?
The general appearance of a mineral surface in reflected light.
p.61
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What material do convection currents transfer from the crust to Earth’s interior?
Denser, cooler material through subduction.
p.123
Mineral Properties and Classification
How are minerals ranked according to their hardness?
From 1 to 10, with softer minerals being scratched by harder ones.
p.19
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What are convergent boundaries also known as?
Destructive or consuming plate boundaries.
p.21
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What are the rigid masses that make up the globe according to plate tectonics theory?
Plates consisting of lithosphere.
p.147
Orogenetic and Epeirogenetic Movements
What does the term 'orogenetic' derive from?
It comes from the Greek words 'oros' (mountain) and 'genesis' (origin or formation).
p.120
Mineral Properties and Classification
What causes Amethyst to have a purple color?
Traces of the element iron.
p.40
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
How does the age and density of oceanic crust change?
It increases with distance from mid-ocean ridges.
p.50
Orogenetic and Epeirogenetic Movements
What is orogeny?
Mountain-building activity driven by processes in the mantle.
p.11
Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis
What is the main process involved in sea-floor spreading?
Basaltic magma from the mantle rises to create new ocean floor at mid-ocean ridges.
p.66
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
Name some examples of siderophile elements.
Gold, platinum, and cobalt.
p.139
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
Why is the study of forces affecting the Earth's crust significant?
It is crucial for understanding the creation, destruction, recreation, and maintenance of geomaterials and various relief features.
p.41
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
At what type of boundary does subduction occur?
At a convergent plate boundary.
p.115
Mineral Properties and Classification
How are silica minerals classified?
Based on how the silica tetrahedra are linked.
p.136
Mineral Properties and Classification
What happens to the composition of magma as minerals crystallize in the discontinuous series?
The composition of the magma changes.
p.133
Mineral Properties and Classification
Who proposed Bowen's Reaction Series?
Canadian geologist Norman L. Bowen.
p.65
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
How does the heat from the core contribute to its temperature?
It comes from radioactive decay, leftover heat from formation, and solidification of the outer core.
p.55
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
Are tectonic plates actually floating?
No, they are not really floating; the asthenosphere is not liquid.
p.137
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
Which minerals crystallize first in the Bowen's Reaction Series?
Those with the highest melting points.
p.7
Continental Drift Theory
What force caused the continental drift according to Wegener?
Centripetal force experienced by the continents due to the Earth's rotation.
p.6
Continental Drift Theory
What is the name of the oceanic part associated with Pangaea?
Panthalassa, meaning 'all oceans'.
p.63
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
How are diamonds brought to the surface?
In explosive volcanic eruptions.
p.5
Continental Drift Theory
What observation led to the development of the theory of continental drift?
The coastlines on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean fit together like a jigsaw puzzle.
p.120
Mineral Properties and Classification
What is the cause of Malachite's green color?
Copper in its atomic structure.
p.137
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
How does the composition of magma change during crystallization?
It changes as the minerals crystallize.
p.5
Continental Drift Theory
What does the theory of continental drift propose?
That continents are not stationary and have moved in the geological past.
p.8
Continental Drift Theory
What continents made up Gondwanaland?
South America, Antarctica, Africa, Madagascar, India, and Australia.
p.97
Mineral Properties and Classification
Which option includes bicarbonates in relation to ferromagnesian minerals?
(2) (B), (C) and (D) Only.
p.19
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What happens at convergent plate margins?
Two plates converge towards each other.
p.64
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What materials contributed to the formation of the early Earth's core?
Droplets of iron, nickel, and other heavy metals.
p.19
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What occurs to the denser plate at a convergent boundary?
It moves down or subducts below the lighter plate.
p.36
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What happens at convergent plate boundaries?
Tectonic plates crash into each other, thrusting up continental crust.
p.57
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What happens to tectonic plates after stalling in the transition zone?
They mix with other mantle rock and eventually return to the upper mantle.
p.29
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What are the three layers of the Earth?
The crust, the mantle, and the core.
p.120
Mineral Properties and Classification
What can determine a mineral's color?
Tiny amounts of impurities, as little as one tenth of 1%.
p.9
Continental Drift Theory
What is the origin of the name 'Tethys' in Palaeo-Tethys Ocean?
Named after the Greek goddess of the sea, Tethys.
p.94
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What causes the formation of Rossby waves in the Earth's ocean and atmosphere?
The rotation of the planet.
p.97
Mineral Properties and Classification
What are ferromagnesian minerals?
A group of silicates that are black, brown, or green in color and highly resistant to weathering and erosional processes.
p.58
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
Is the lower mantle more or less ductile than the upper mantle?
The lower mantle is much less ductile than the upper mantle.
p.61
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
Where do convection currents transfer hot, buoyant magma?
To the lithosphere at plate boundaries and hot spots.
p.54
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What happens to rocks in the asthenosphere due to high temperature and pressure?
They soften and partly melt, becoming semi-molten.
p.144
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What do fissure flows of lavas form?
Extensive lava plateaus and lava plains.
p.142
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What can lead to rapid earth movements below the crust?
The displacement and readjustment of geomaterials.
p.54
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What does ductility measure?
A solid material’s ability to deform or stretch under stress.
p.125
Mineral Properties and Classification
Why do crystals crack along certain directions?
Because the strength of bonding in all directions is not equal.
p.12
Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis
What did Hess calculate about the movement of South America and Africa?
They moved 2500 km apart over 250 million years.
p.8
Continental Drift Theory
What happened to Laurasia and Gondwanaland over time?
They continued to break apart into various smaller continents that exist today.
p.70
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What do some geophysicists interpret the inner core as?
A plasma behaving as a solid.
p.147
Orogenetic and Epeirogenetic Movements
What happens when tensional forces operate in opposite directions?
They create rupture, cracks, fractures, and faults in the Earth's crust.
p.4
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What is the main objection to Haarman's oscillation and undation theory?
The basis of cosmic influence is not known, and gliding tectonic does not explain the structural features of all mountains on Earth.
p.144
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What types of events are caused by sudden endogenetic forces?
Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.
p.29
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the composition of the Earth's crust?
Solid rocks and minerals.
p.111
Mineral Properties and Classification
Name some silicate structures.
Feldspar, augite, olivine.
p.144
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What relief features can volcanic eruptions create?
Volcanic cones and mountains.
p.65
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the difference between the core and the mineral-rich crust and mantle?
The core is made almost entirely of metal, while the crust and mantle are mineral-rich.
p.15
Types of Faults and Their Characteristics
What is the primary movement in a strike-slip fault?
Horizontal movement with minimal vertical displacement.
p.125
Mineral Properties and Classification
What happens when some minerals break along one dominant plane of cleavage?
They produce parallel sheets.
p.58
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the general relationship between heat and rock softness in the lower mantle?
Although heat usually corresponds to softening rocks, the intense pressure keeps the lower mantle solid.
p.20
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
Who contributed to the development of the plate tectonic theory?
Many scientists from different countries, working together or independently.
p.133
Mineral Properties and Classification
What method did Bowen use to study mineral formation?
He experimented with powdered rock material that was heated until melted and then cooled.
p.144
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
Give an example of a lava plateau.
Deccan plateau of India or Columbian plateau of the USA.
p.133
Mineral Properties and Classification
What did Bowen observe during his experiments?
The types of minerals that formed in the rocks produced.
p.142
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
How do thermal conditions affect rocks inside the Earth?
They cause contraction and expansion.
p.25
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What happens to the overridden plate at destructive plate margins?
It is subducted or thrust into the mantle.
p.18
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What is the significance of a divergent plate boundary?
It represents a zone of divergence where two plates are pulled apart.
p.25
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What is the result of subduction at destructive plate margins?
Part of the crust (plate) is lost in the mantle.
p.18
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What fills the gap created at a divergent boundary?
Continuous upwelling of molten rocks from the mantle.
p.18
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
Why are divergent boundaries referred to as 'constructive plate margins'?
Because new crust is added at these boundaries.
p.34
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
How can ophiolites emerge in continental crust?
Sometimes as dikes due to tectonic activity.
p.36
Continental Drift Theory
Where are the thickest parts of continental crust found?
At the world’s tallest mountain ranges.
p.33
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What happens at convergent boundaries between two oceanic plates?
The denser plate subducts beneath the less-dense plate.
p.54
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
How deep does the asthenosphere lie beneath Earth's surface?
Between about 100 kilometers (62 miles) and 410 kilometers (255 miles).
p.11
Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis
What happens to the sea floor after it is subducted?
It is recycled back into the mantle.
p.142
Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces
What causes endogenetic forces?
Contraction and expansion of rocks due to varying thermal conditions and temperature changes inside the Earth.
p.55
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
Where are tectonic plates unstable?
At their boundaries and hot spots.
p.118
Mineral Properties and Classification
What are pseudochromatic minerals?
Minerals that appear colored due to light diffraction.
p.112
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
List the 8 elements that compose over 99% of Earth's crust.
Oxygen (O), Silicon (Si), Aluminium (Al), Iron (Fe), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Sodium (Na), and Potassium (K).
p.55
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What is a hot spot?
An intensely hot region deep within the Earth that rises to just underneath the surface.
p.89
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the role of recharge in freshwater aquifers?
Recharge affects the boundary between fresh and salty groundwater.
p.129
Mineral Properties and Classification
What are the two main types of mineral luster?
Metallic and non-metallic.
p.17
Types of Faults and Their Characteristics
What are the three styles of faults that bound the tectonic plates?
Thrust faults, oceanic spreading ridges, and transform faults.
p.118
Mineral Properties and Classification
Provide an example of a pseudochromatic mineral.
Precious opal or labradorite.
p.5
Continental Drift Theory
Who initiated the concept of continental mobility?
F.B. Taylor, an American physicist, in 1910.
p.13
Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis
What happens to molten lavas at mid-oceanic ridges?
They cool down and solidify to form new crust.
p.4
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What happens when the cosmic influence moves in relation to Earth, according to Haarman's theory?
The tumours also move, resulting in oscillation of emergence and submergence.
p.35
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
How does the density of continental crust compare to sima?
Continental crust is slightly less dense than sima.
p.19
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What happens to the crustal part of the subducting plate?
It enters into the mantle where it melts.
p.19
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What is subduction?
The downward motion of one lithospheric plate under another.
p.136
Mineral Properties and Classification
How does the composition of magma change in the continuous series?
The composition does not change significantly.
p.64
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What lies above the Earth's core?
The cool, brittle crust and the mostly solid mantle.
p.22
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What is a convergent plate movement?
When two tectonic plates move towards each other.
p.26
Continental Drift Theory
What is the significance of the second Pangaea?
It relates to the continuous relative movement of different plates.
p.137
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
Which minerals crystallize last in the Bowen's Reaction Series?
Those with the lowest melting points.
p.22
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What is a transform plate movement?
When two tectonic plates slide past each other.
p.33
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
Why is oceanic crust much younger than continental crust?
Due to the process of subduction.
p.123
Mineral Properties and Classification
Why is hardness important in mineral identification?
It is one of the most important tests used in identifying minerals.
p.147
Orogenetic and Epeirogenetic Movements
What are tensional forces also called?
Divergent forces and movements.
p.35
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
How thick can the continental crust be?
As thick as 70 kilometers (44 miles).
p.4
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What are 'geotumours' and 'geodepressions' in Haarman's theory?
'Geotumours' are formations created by vertical movements, while 'geodepressions' are areas caused by the flow of sub-crustal sialic matter.
p.18
Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis
What is sea floor spreading?
The process where new oceanic crust is continuously generated.
p.147
Orogenetic and Epeirogenetic Movements
What type of forces cause orogenetic movement?
Endogenetic forces working in a horizontal manner.
p.120
Mineral Properties and Classification
How does the amount of iron affect Amethyst's color?
It determines the intensity of the purple color.
p.21
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What is the role of convection currents in plate tectonics?
They facilitate the movement of lithospheric plates over the asthenosphere.
p.120
Mineral Properties and Classification
What elements can turn quartz pink?
Trace amounts of titanium or manganese.
p.5
Continental Drift Theory
What was the title of Wegener's book that presented his ideas on continental drift?
'Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane.'
p.25
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What occurs to the leading edge of one plate at destructive plate margins?
It overrides the other plate.
p.54
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What is the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary (LAB)?
The point where the difference in ductility between the lithosphere and asthenosphere is marked.
p.17
Types of Faults and Their Characteristics
What occurs at oceanic spreading ridges?
New crustal material is produced.
p.89
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
What aspect of the aquifer influences the boundary between fresh and salty groundwater?
The nature of the aquifer itself.
p.129
Mineral Properties and Classification
What is a characteristic of minerals with metallic luster?
They are usually opaque and have a colored streak.
p.4
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What occurs in the second phase of Haarman's oscillation and undation theory?
Sediments in depressions are lifted up and glide down the slopes of new tumours.
p.19
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
Where does subduction occur?
At a subduction zone or Benioff zone.
p.21
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What does the lithosphere do in relation to the asthenosphere?
It floats and moves along convection currents over the asthenosphere.
p.14
Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis
What evidence supports the Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis?
Magnetic striping on the ocean floor and age distribution of oceanic crust.
p.2
Contraction and Expansion Hypotheses
What effect did contraction and thinning have on the outermost layer above 100 km?
It resulted in compression.
p.54
Composition and Structure of Earth's Layers
How does the viscosity of the asthenosphere compare to the lithosphere?
The asthenosphere is generally more viscous than the lithosphere.
p.33
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
Where is the oldest existing oceanic crust located?
In the Ionian Sea, part of the eastern Mediterranean basin.
p.4
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What is the outcome of the third phase in Haarman's theory?
Folded and structurally accumulated rocks are lifted up to form mountain chains.
p.17
Types of Faults and Their Characteristics
What is the function of transform faults?
They accommodate horizontal slip (strike slip) between adjoining plates.
p.13
Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis
What do these processes indicate about continents and ocean basins?
They are in constant motion.
p.12
Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis
Where is volcanic activity believed to be continuously occurring to support sea-floor spreading?
Under the sea along the Mid-Oceanic Ridges (MOR).
p.2
Contraction and Expansion Hypotheses
Between which depths is cooling and contraction confined according to the Contraction Hypothesis?
Between 100 km and 700 km.
p.147
Orogenetic and Epeirogenetic Movements
What is the name given to forces that operate face to face?
Compressional force or convergent force.
p.19
Plate Tectonic Theory and Principles
What happens to the melted portion of the subducting plate?
It is consumed or destroyed and is no longer part of the subducting plate.
