What is the general formula for carbohydrates?

C(H₂O)n

How are carbohydrates involved in cell communication?

Carbohydrates in the cell membrane, like glycolipids and glycoproteins, are used for cell-to-cell communication.

What are polyhydroxyaldehydes and polyhydroxyketones?

They are types of carbohydrates.

Which hexose is commonly found in fruits?

Fructose

What is the role of pectin as a stool bulking agent?

Pectin adds bulk and water to stools, helping them pass more easily through the intestines.

What are the energy reserve polysaccharides in plants and humans?

Starch in plants and glycogen in humans.

What are the units that make up chitin?

N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (NAG) units.

What is a furanose in the context of Haworth Projection?

A furanose is a 5-membered, hemiketal structure, most important for ketose sugars like fructose.

What units make up glycogen?

Glycogen is made up of α-glucose units.

Is lactose a reducing or non-reducing sugar?

Reducing sugar.

Is maltose a reducing or non-reducing sugar?

Reducing sugar.

How is a glycosidic bond formed and broken?

A glycosidic bond is formed by condensation and broken by hydrolysis.

Which monosaccharides are most biologically important in humans?

Hexoses, such as glucose, fructose, and galactose.

In what form do carbohydrates create intermediate energy?

In the form of ATP.

What are glycolipids and glycoproteins used for?

They are used for cell-to-cell communication.

What is the test for starch and what indicates a positive result?

The test for starch is the Iodine Test, and a positive result is indicated by a blue-black or purple color.

In which products can hyaluronic acid be found?

Serums.

What role do carbohydrates play in DNA and RNA?

They are constituents; DNA contains deoxygenated ribose and RNA contains ribose.

How can carbohydrates be chemically modified?

By the addition of functional groups.

What are the characteristics of amylopectin?

Amylopectin is a branched component of starch, broken down by enzymes to release glucose when needed by the plant, has a larger surface area due to branching, and constitutes 80-85% of stored starch.

Give examples of polysaccharides and where they can be found.

Cellulose (books, cotton in clothes, wood) and starch (bread, pasta, potatoes, rice, corn, beans, peas).

What is maltose composed of?

Two glucose molecules.

What is the name of the bond between monosaccharides in di/oligosaccharides?

The bond is called a glycosidic bond.

What is the most abundant, naturally occurring polysaccharide?

Cellulose.

What is the main difference between maltose and cellobiose?

Cellobiose has beta 1,4 glycosidic linkages, while maltose has alpha 1,4 glycosidic bonds.

In chair conformation, how are atoms to the left of the anomeric carbon projected?

Atoms to the left of the anomeric carbon are projected up axially or up equatorially.

What are pentoses?

Monosaccharides made up of 5 carbon atoms, e.g., ribose, deoxyribose, ribulose.

What does FAD stand for in biochemistry?

Flavin adenine dinucleotide

What is the storage form of glucose in all organisms?

Alpha form of glucose.

What is the primary function of starch in plants?

Starch serves as the energy storage of plants, storing excess glucose.

How does the branching frequency of glycogen compare to starch, and why?

The branching in glycogen is 3 times more frequent than in starch because humans need more energy and glucose, resulting in more glycogen storage.

What is the result of polysaccharides in Benedict’s Test?

Negative (blue), as there are no reducing sugars to oxidize.

What are the functions of polysaccharides?

Food and energy (from consumption) and structural material (e.g., cellulose in the cell wall of plants).

What is a Haworth projection in biochemistry?

A Haworth projection is a method for representing the spatial arrangements of atoms within a carbohydrate, where all atoms to the bottom are projected forward and the other three sides above are projected to the back.

What are monosaccharides?

Simplest sugars with a single carbon chain.

How many carbon atoms can monosaccharides have?

3 to 9 carbon atoms.

What are the physical properties of monosaccharides?

Water-soluble, white crystalline solids.

What is the difference between axial and equatorial positions in chair conformation?

Axial positions are straight lines going up or down in 3D space, whereas equatorial positions project towards the sides, either forward or back in 3D space.

Which molecules involved in energy synthesis contain ribose?

AMP, ADP, and ATP

What type of glucose form is cellulose made of?

Beta form of glucose.

Where is starch mainly found in plants?

Starch is found in chloroplasts, seeds, and tubers/root crops such as turnips, carrots, and potatoes.

Where is glycogen found in the human body, and what are its functions?

Glycogen is found in muscles, where it supplies glucose and energy to the muscles, and in the liver, where it supplies glucose for the entire body and other tissues.

What is Aldonic acid and what does it oxidize?

Aldonic acid is a weak oxidizing agent that can only oxidize the C1 carbon.

What are important examples of polysaccharides?

Cellulose (cell wall of plants), starch (plants), and glycogen (animals).

In chair conformation, how are atoms to the right of the anomeric carbon projected?

Atoms to the right of the anomeric carbon are projected down axially or down equatorially.

What are enantiomers?

Enantiomers are stereoisomers that are superimposable, mirror images of each other.

What two alternating components make up hyaluronic acid?

N-acetyl-β-D-glucosamine and D-glucoronate.

Why are 6-carbon hexoses biologically important in humans?

They are needed for the formation of polysaccharides and make up most of the food we ingest.

In the Fischer projection, what does 'L' (laevo) indicate?

The hydroxyl group (-OH) starts at the left.

What are the characteristics of amylose?

Amylose is unbranched, linear, readily digested, takes up less space, and constitutes 15-20% of stored starch in plants (up to 30%).

How is the configuration termed if the —OH group is above the ring in a D sugar?

β (beta).

What kind of glycosidic linkage connects galactose to glucose in lactose?

Beta 1,4 glycosidic linkage.

What is the basis for classifying monosaccharides?

The number of carbon atoms.

What is the role of glyceraldehyde in lipid formation?

Glyceraldehyde is used in the formation of glycerol, which is used in lipid formation.

What is one of the key properties of hyaluronic acid?

It retains moisture.

Which hexoses are commonly found in foods like honey, molasses, and simple syrup?

Glucose

Where is pectin found and what is its role in plants?

Pectin is found in fruits and is a major component of the middle lamella that binds cells together, also found in primary cell walls.

What is glycogen and its primary function in animals?

Glycogen, also known as 'animal starch,' serves as an energy reserve for animals, storing excess glucose.

What is the role of an oxidizing agent in oxidation reactions?

An oxidizing agent is a reduced substance.

What type of linkages are found in straight-chain polysaccharides and branched polysaccharides?

Straight chain = 1,4 linkages; Branched = 1,6 linkages.

How is the OH group positioned in a beta-D-glucose Haworth projection?

In a beta-D-glucose Haworth projection, the OH group is up.

What are tautomers and how do they interconvert?

Tautomers are isomers that readily interconvert by relocating a proton when in equilibrium. An example is d-glucose and d-fructose.

What are diastereomers?

Diastereomers are non-superimposable, non-mirror images of each other. They change at one or more points but are not mirrored.

What is the chemical formula for pentoses?

C5H10O5

What is the Fischer projection and why is it used?

The Fischer projection is a way to draw long-chain molecules with several chiral carbons, shaped like a fishbone for convenience.

What is chitin and where is it commonly found?

Chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide, found in the rigid coating of exoskeletons of animals like shrimp.

What are oligomers of sugars usually composed of?

Disaccharides formed by linking two monosaccharide units.

What type of reactions can monosaccharides undergo?

Monosaccharides can undergo oxidation-reduction reactions.

What are polysaccharides also known as?

Glycans.

What is a homopolysaccharide?

A chain that contains only one type of monosaccharide unit, e.g., cellulose, starch, and glycogen (all contain repeating units of glucose).

How can you determine the amount of reducing sugar present?

The darker the color, the higher the amount of reducing sugar present.

What is the role of glyceraldehyde in plants?

It is used for photosynthesis.

What is a major component of synovial fluid and skin?

Hyaluronic acid.

How do carbohydrates participate in intermediate metabolism?

They supply the carbon atoms of different macromolecules.

In the Fischer projection, what does 'D' (dextro) indicate?

The hydroxyl group (-OH) starts at the right.

Where is heparin found and what is its use in blood tests?

Heparin is found in green evacuated tubes and is used for arterial blood gases to prevent the blood from clotting immediately.

How can chitin trigger an immune response?

Chitin can trigger an allergy-like response in the immune system and is generally indigestible, though some people have chitinase to metabolize it.

What is sucrose composed of?

Glucose and fructose.

Are polysaccharides sweet?

No, polysaccharides are not sweet. The more sugars you put together, the less sweet they become.

What is produced during the reduction of monosaccharides?

Reduction produces sugar alcohols (polyhydroxy alcohols), such as glucitol, commonly known as sorbitol.

In a Haworth projection, how are the atoms on the right side of a Fischer projection represented?

Atoms on the right side of a Fischer projection are represented as down in a Haworth projection.

How is the OH group positioned in an alpha-D-glucose Haworth projection?

In an alpha-D-glucose Haworth projection, the OH group is down.

What are trioses?

Monosaccharides made up of 3 carbon atoms, e.g., glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone.

What is heparin and what is its primary use?

Heparin is a highly sulfated polysaccharide used as an anticoagulant (blood thinner) for treating thrombotic events.

What are the characteristics of plant cell walls?

They are fibrous (straight chain), tasteless, and odorless, and are made up of β-glucose units.

What indicates the presence of a reducing sugar when heated with Benedict's solution?

A brick-red precipitate.

What is lactose composed of?

Galactose and glucose.

What is Aldaric acid and what does it oxidize?

Aldaric acid is a strong oxidizing agent that oxidizes both ends (the 1st and last carbon).

How is the configuration termed if the —OH group is below the ring in a D sugar?

α (alpha).

What is a heteropolysaccharide?

A polysaccharide that contains two or more types of monosaccharide units, e.g., glucose + galactose + maltose.

What happens to Carbon 5 in the formation of a Haworth projection?

Carbon 5 will attack Carbon 1.

What kind of glycosidic linkage is found in isomaltose?

Alpha 1,6 linkages.

What is a pyranose in the context of Haworth Projection?

A pyranose is a 6-membered, hemiacetal (heterocyclic) structure.

What is a polysaccharide?

A polymeric carbohydrate that contains many monosaccharide units covalently bonded to each other.

What is Alduronic acid and what does it oxidize?

Alduronic acid oxidizes the C6 or last carbon and involves enzymes like amylase and lactase.

In a Haworth projection, how are the atoms on the left side of a Fischer projection represented?

Atoms on the left side of a Fischer projection are represented as up in a Haworth projection.

What kind of glycosidic linkages connect glucose and fructose in sucrose?

Alpha 1,2 glycosidic linkages.

Which disaccharides are reducing sugars?

Maltose and lactose.

What is G3P and its significance?

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) is used in respiration and carbohydrate metabolism.

Why is ribose important in biochemistry?

Ribose is needed in the synthesis of some coenzymes, such as NAD and NADP.

Which types of sugars are reducing sugars?

All monosaccharides and some disaccharides (maltose and lactose).

Is sucrose a reducing or non-reducing sugar?

Non-reducing sugar.

What is the role of a reducing agent in oxidation reactions?

A reducing agent is an oxidized substance, also known as reducing sugars, which can reduce other substances.

What does the notation —HOH indicate in the structure of disaccharides?

The configuration can be either α or β.

What is the smallest unit of carbohydrates?

Monosaccharides.

What kind of glycosidic bond is found in maltose?

Alpha 1,4 glycosidic bond.

Why is the chair conformation of Beta-D-Glucose called ‘chair’?

It is called ‘chair’ because it resembles a chair toppled over to the back.

What defines stereoisomers?

Stereoisomers have the same molecular formula but different configurations due to asymmetric/chiral carbons, resulting in different 3D arrangements.

What are structural isomers?

Structural isomers are molecules with the same molecular formula but different bonding arrangements.

What are optical isomers and how do they interact with polarized light?

Optical isomers rotate the plane of polarized light. D-forms (dextro-rotatory) rotate light to the right, while L-forms (laevo-rotatory) rotate light to the left.

What are epimers?

Epimers are a type of diastereomer that differ from each other only at one carbon, which cannot be the anomeric carbon.

What defines anomers and how do they differ?

Anomers differ in the position of the hydroxyl group attached to the anomeric carbon. They are often referred to as 'alpha' and 'beta' forms.

What form of energy do carbohydrates create?

A) NADH

B) FADH₂

C) ATP

D) GTP

E) ADP

What is the main function of cellulose in plants?

A) Energy storage

B) Structural support

C) Photosynthesis

D) Nutrient absorption

E) Water storage

What are the alternating units in hyaluronic acid?

A) Glucose and galactose

B) N-acetyl-β-D-glucosamine and D-glucoronate

C) Fructose and mannose

D) Ribose and deoxyribose

E) Sucrose and lactose

What distinguishes structural isomers?

A) Same molecular formula and same bonding arrangements

B) Different molecular formulas and different bonding arrangements

C) Same molecular formula but different bonding arrangements

D) Different molecular formulas but same bonding arrangements

E) Same molecular formula and same spatial arrangements

What is the process called when tautomers interconvert by relocating a proton?

A) Isomerization

B) Tautomerization

C) Epimerization

D) Anomerization

E) Diastereomerization

What does the notation —HOH indicate in the context of disaccharide structures?

A) The presence of a free anomeric carbon

B) The configuration can be either α or β

C) The sugar is a reducing sugar

D) The sugar is a non-reducing sugar

E) The presence of a glycosidic bond

What is the smallest unit of carbohydrates?

A) Disaccharides

B) Polysaccharides

C) Monosaccharides

D) Oligosaccharides

E) Hexoses

Which monosaccharide is involved in the glycolysis pathway?

A) Ribose

B) Glucose

C) Glyceraldehyde

D) Fructose

E) Galactose

What is hyaluronic acid a major component of?

A) Blood plasma and muscles

B) Synovial fluid and skin

C) Bone marrow and liver

D) Saliva and hair

E) Stomach acid and nails

What polysaccharide serves as an energy reserve in humans?

A) Cellulose

B) Starch

C) Glycogen

D) Chitin

E) Pectin

Which of the following is NOT a role of carbohydrates?

A) Energy reserve

B) Structural components

C) Cell communication

D) Protein synthesis

E) Constituent of DNA and RNA

Which disaccharide is composed of two glucose units connected by an alpha 1,4 glycosidic bond?

A) Sucrose

B) Lactose

C) Maltose

D) Cellobiose

E) Isomaltose

What type of reaction do monosaccharides most commonly undergo?

A) Hydrolysis

B) Condensation

C) Oxidation-Reduction

D) Polymerization

E) Dehydration

What is the product of the reduction of a monosaccharide?

A) Aldonic acid

B) Aldaric acid

C) Sugar alcohol

D) Alduronic acid

E) Glycosidic bond

Which process breaks a glycosidic bond?

A) Condensation

B) Hydrolysis

C) Oxidation

D) Reduction

E) Dehydration

Which pentose is needed for the synthesis of some coenzymes?

A) Glucose

B) Fructose

C) Ribose

D) Galactose

E) Glyceraldehyde

Which form of starch is unbranched and readily digested?

A) Cellulose

B) Glycogen

C) Amylopectin

D) Amylose

E) Chitin

How does the branching of amylopectin benefit the plant?

A) Reduces water loss

B) Increases structural integrity

C) Provides a larger surface area for enzyme action

D) Enhances photosynthesis

E) Improves nutrient absorption

What is the function of cellulose in plants?

A) Energy storage

B) Structural material

C) Transport of nutrients

D) Enzyme regulation

E) Hormone production

What is the characteristic change in anomers?

A) Differ at one carbon

B) Rotate plane of polarized light

C) Change in position of hydroxyl group attached to the anomeric carbon

D) Superimposable, mirror images

E) Non-superimposable, non-mirror images

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of hexoses?

A) Made up of 6 carbon atoms

B) Needed for the formation of polysaccharides

C) Make up most of the food we ingest

D) Contain 5 carbon atoms

E) Biologically important in humans

What type of glucose configuration is found in cellulose?

A) Alpha

B) Beta

C) Gamma

D) Delta

E) Epsilon

What is pectin commonly used for?

A) As a blood thinner

B) As a stool bulking agent

C) As a rigid coating for exoskeletons

D) As a structural component in cellulose

E) As a metabolic enzyme

What happens to Carbon 5 in the formation of a Haworth projection?

A) It attacks Carbon 4

B) It attacks Carbon 1

C) It attacks Carbon 2

D) It remains unchanged

E) It forms a double bond with Carbon 6

In the Haworth projection, what is the configuration of Alpha-D-Glucose?

A) The OH group on Carbon 1 is up

B) The OH group on Carbon 1 is down

C) The OH group on Carbon 5 is up

D) The OH group on Carbon 5 is down

E) The OH group on Carbon 2 is up

What type of carbohydrate gives a brick-red precipitate when heated with Benedict's solution?

A) All polysaccharides

B) All disaccharides

C) All monosaccharides

D) Some polysaccharides

E) None of the above

Which of the following is a pentose sugar?

A) Glucose

B) Fructose

C) Galactose

D) Ribose

E) Sucrose

In what products is hyaluronic acid commonly found?

A) Shampoos

B) Serums

C) Toothpaste

D) Detergents

E) Sunscreens

What is the positive indicator for the iodine test for starch?

A) Red

B) Yellow

C) Blue-black or purple

D) Green

E) Orange

What type of glucose units make up starch in plants?

A) β-Glucose

B) α-D-Glucose

C) Fructose

D) Galactose

E) Ribose

Which carbohydrate is often referred to as 'animal starch'?

A) Cellulose

B) Amylose

C) Glycogen

D) Amylopectin

E) Chitin

What defines stereoisomers?

A) Same molecular formula, different bonding

B) Same molecular formula, different configurations due to asymmetric carbons

C) Different molecular formula, same bonding

D) Different molecular formula, different bonding

E) Same molecular formula, same bonding and position

Which of the following is a homopolysaccharide?

A) Cellulose

B) Lactose

C) Maltose

D) Sucrose

E) Fructose

What distinguishes diastereomers from enantiomers?

A) Superimposable, mirror images

B) Non-superimposable, non-mirror images

C) Rotate plane of polarized light

D) Change in position of hydroxyl group

E) Same configuration at all carbons

Which of the following is a non-reducing sugar?

A) Lactose

B) Maltose

C) Sucrose

D) Cellobiose

E) Isomaltose

What is the common name for glucitol, which is used in chewing gum?

A) Mannitol

B) Sorbitol

C) Xylitol

D) Erythritol

E) Ribitol

In the Fischer projection of D-glucose, where does the hydroxyl group (-OH) start?

A) Left

B) Right

C) Top

D) Bottom

E) Center

How many carbon atoms do monosaccharides typically have?

A) 1-2

B) 3-9

C) 10-12

D) 13-15

E) 16-18

What is the storage form of glucose?

A) Beta-glucose

B) Gamma-glucose

C) Delta-glucose

D) Alpha-glucose

E) Epsilon-glucose

What is one of the key functions of hyaluronic acid in the body?

A) Providing energy

B) Retaining moisture

C) Producing hormones

D) Synthesizing proteins

E) Breaking down fats

What is the general formula for carbohydrates?

A) C (H₂O)

B) CH₄

C) H₂O

D) C₆H₁₂O₆

E) NaCl

What is the deoxygenated form of ribose found in DNA?

A) Deoxyribose

B) Ribulose

C) Fructose

D) Glucose

E) Galactose

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of polysaccharides?

A) They are polymeric carbohydrates

B) They are sweet

C) They are also known as glycans

D) They are negative in Benedict's Test

E) They contain many monosaccharide units

What characteristic defines optical isomers?

A) Differ at one carbon

B) Rotate the plane of polarized light

C) Change in position of hydroxyl group

D) Superimposable, mirror images

E) Non-superimposable, non-mirror images

Which of the following polysaccharides is commonly found in food such as bread, pasta, and potatoes?

A) Cellulose

B) Glycogen

C) Starch

D) Chitin

E) Pectin

What type of glycosidic linkage connects the monosaccharides in lactose?

A) Alpha 1,4

B) Beta 1,4

C) Alpha 1,2

D) Beta 1,2

E) Alpha 1,6

Which glycosidic linkage is found in sucrose?

A) Alpha 1,4

B) Beta 1,4

C) Alpha 1,2

D) Beta 1,2

E) Alpha 1,6

Which of the following statements is true about reducing sugars?

A) Only monosaccharides are reducing sugars

B) Sucrose is a reducing sugar

C) Reducing sugars cannot be digested by the body

D) Lactose and maltose are reducing sugars

E) The lighter the color, the higher the amount of reducing sugar present

What is the characteristic of aldonic acid in oxidation reactions?

A) Oxidizes both ends of the sugar

B) Oxidizes only the C1 carbon

C) Oxidizes only the C6 carbon

D) Does not participate in oxidation

E) Oxidizes the C2 carbon

What does FAD stand for in biochemistry?

A) Flavin adenine dinucleotide

B) Flavin adenosine diphosphate

C) Flavin adenine diester

D) Flavin adenosine dinucleotide

E) Flavin adenine diphosphate

Which of the following is true about chitin?

A) It is digestible by all humans

B) It is made up of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (NAG) units

C) It is used as a blood thinner

D) It is found in primary cell walls

E) It is a major component of the middle lamella

In the Haworth projection, what does it mean when a group is on the right side of the Fischer projection?

A) It will go up and forward

B) It will go down and backward

C) It will go up and backward

D) It will go down and forward

E) It will stay in the same position

Where is glycogen primarily stored in the human body?

A) Blood

B) Kidneys

C) Liver and muscles

D) Brain

E) Skin

What type of glycosidic linkage is found in a straight chain polysaccharide?

A) 1,2 linkage

B) 1,3 linkage

C) 1,4 linkage

D) 1,5 linkage

E) 1,6 linkage

What is the difference between maltose and cellobiose?

A) The type of monosaccharides

B) The type of glycosidic linkage

C) The number of monosaccharides

D) The presence of a free anomeric carbon

E) The reducing properties

Which of the following is a characteristic of heparin?

A) It is used as a stool bulking agent

B) It is found in fruits

C) It is an anticoagulant

D) It is found in primary cell walls

E) It is the second most abundant polysaccharide

In the chair conformation of Beta-D-Glucose, what is the position of groups to the right of the anomeric carbon?

A) Up axially or up equatorially

B) Down axially or down equatorially

C) Forward axially or backward equatorially

D) Backward axially or forward equatorially

E) They remain in the same position

What are polyhydroxyaldehydes and polyhydroxyketones?

A) Types of proteins

B) Types of lipids

C) Types of carbohydrates

D) Types of nucleic acids

E) Types of vitamins

What are enantiomers?

A) Non-superimposable, non-mirror images

B) Superimposable, mirror images

C) Differ at one carbon

D) Rotate plane of polarized light

E) Change in position of hydroxyl group

Which of the following is an example of a heteropolysaccharide?

A) Glycogen

B) Starch

C) Cellulose

D) Glucose + Galactose + Maltose

E) Fructose

Which of the following sugars is most important as a furanose in its hemiketal form?

A) Glucose

B) Ribose

C) Fructose

D) Galactose

E) Mannose

How is a glycosidic bond formed?

A) By hydrolysis

B) By condensation

C) By oxidation

D) By reduction

E) By phosphorylation

Which of the following hexoses is commonly found in honey?

A) Ribose

B) Fructose

C) Galactose

D) Mannose

E) Xylose

What is the role of glyceraldehyde in lipid formation?

A) It forms ribose

B) It is used in the formation of glycerol

C) It is a component of NAD

D) It is used in photosynthesis

E) It forms glucose

What percentage of stored starch in plants is amylopectin?

A) 10-15%

B) 20-25%

C) 30-35%

D) 80-85%

E) 90-95%

Which molecules are involved in cell-to-cell communication?

A) Glycolipids and glycoproteins

B) Phospholipids and steroids

C) Enzymes and hormones

D) DNA and RNA

E) Vitamins and minerals

What type of ring structure does a pyranose form in a Haworth projection?

A) 5-membered, hemiketal

B) 6-membered, hemiacetal

C) 5-membered, hemiacetal

D) 6-membered, hemiketal

E) 5-membered, cyclic ester

Which polysaccharide is the second most abundant and found in exoskeletons?

A) Cellulose

B) Starch

C) Glycogen

D) Chitin

E) Pectin

Which of the following is an example of tautomers?

A) D-glucose and D-fructose

B) D-glucose and L-glucose

C) D-glucose and D-mannose

D) D-glucose and D-galactose

E) D-glucose and D-ribose

What defines epimers?

A) Differ at multiple carbons

B) Differ only at one carbon

C) Rotate plane of polarized light

D) Superimposable, mirror images

E) Change in position of hydroxyl group

Which of the following polysaccharides is the most abundant, naturally occurring polysaccharide?

A) Starch

B) Glycogen

C) Cellulose

D) Chitin

E) Pectin

Which disaccharide is found in milk and dairy products?

A) Sucrose

B) Lactose

C) Maltose

D) Cellobiose

E) Isomaltose

Which enzyme is involved in the oxidation of the C6 carbon to form alduronic acid?

A) Amylase

B) Lactase

C) Sucrase

D) Maltase

E) Invertase

What type of bond connects monosaccharides in di- and oligosaccharides?

A) Peptide bond

B) Phosphodiester bond

C) Glycosidic bond

D) Hydrogen bond

E) Ionic bond

Which of the following monosaccharides is NOT a hexose?

A) Glucose

B) Fructose

C) Galactose

D) Ribose

E) None of the above

What functional group addition can chemically modify polysaccharides?

A) Hydroxyl groups

B) Sulfate groups

C) Methyl groups

D) Phosphate groups

E) Carboxyl groups

The general formula for carbohydrates is ___(H₂O)___.

C

In humans, the polysaccharide that serves as an energy reserve is called ___.

glycogen

One of the key properties of hyaluronic acid is its ability to ___ moisture.

retain

Hyaluronic acid is a major component of ___ fluid (joints) and skin.

synovial

Stereoisomers have the same molecular formula but different configurations due to ___ carbons.

asymmetric/chiral

In plants, the polysaccharide that serves as an energy reserve is called ___.

starch

Hyaluronic acid is composed of alternating ___ and ___.

N-acetyl-β-D-glucosamine, D-glucoronate

Carbohydrates supply the carbon atoms of different ___ during intermediate metabolism.

macromolecules

Tautomers readily interconvert to each other by relocating a ___ when in equilibrium.

proton

Cellulose, a structural polysaccharide, is composed of ___ glucose units.

beta

Enantiomers are ___, mirror images of each other.

superimposable

___ and ___ are used for cell to cell communication in the cell membrane.

Glycolipids, glycoproteins

Hyaluronic acid can be found in ___.

serums

Carbohydrates create intermediate energy in the form of ___.

ATP

Storage form of glucose is ___.

alpha

An example of tautomers in carbohydrates is ___ and ___.

d-glucose, d-fructose

In the Haworth projection, atoms on the right of the Fischer projection go ___ in the Haworth projection.

down

Optical isomers rotate the plane of ___ light.

polarized

Carbohydrates can be classified as ___ or ___.

polyhydroxyaldehydes, polyhydroxyketones

Heparin is a highly ___ polysaccharide with only 15-90 repeating disaccharide units.

sulfated

Diastereomers are ___, non-mirror images of each other.

non-superimposable

The L form of glucose is ___-rotatory, meaning it rotates light to the ___.

laevo, left

A positive indicator for the iodine test for starch is ___ or ___.

blue-black, purple

FAD stands for ___ ___.

flavin adenine dinucleotide

Starch is made up of ___ units.

α-D-glucose

Maltose is composed of two ___ connected at an alpha 1,4 glycosidic bond.

glucose

In Haworth Projection, a pyranose has a ___-membered ring and is a ___ (heterocyclic).

6, hemiacetal

Hexoses are biologically important in humans and are made up of ___ carbon atoms.

6

DNA is the ___ form of ribose.

deoxygenated

Heparin is found in ___ evacuated tubes used for arterial blood gases.

green

In the chair conformation of Beta-D-Glucose, those to the right of the anomeric carbon are projected ___ axially or ___ equatorially.

down, down

In the chair conformation of Beta-D-Glucose, those to the left of the anomeric carbon are projected ___ axially or ___ equatorially.

up, up

The test for starch is the ___ Test.

Iodine

In oxidation reactions, the reduced substance acts as the ___ agent.

oxidizing

In oxidation reactions, the oxidized substance acts as the ___ agent.

reducing

Amylopectin constitutes ___ to ___% of stored starch in plants.

80-85%

Starch is a component of many types of food such as ___, ___, ___, ___, and ___.

bread, pasta, potatoes, rice, corn

Trioses are made up of ___ carbon atoms and examples include ___ and ___.

3, glyceraldehyde, dihydroxyacetone

Oligomers of sugars are usually ___ formed by linking two monosaccharide units.

disaccharides

In the Haworth projection, atoms on the left of the Fischer projection go ___ in the Haworth projection.

up

Lactose is composed of ___ and ___.

galactose, glucose

In Haworth Projection, a furanose has a ___-membered ring and is a ___ (for ketose sugar, most important: fructose).

5, hemiketal

In the Haworth projection, the beta configuration has the OH group pointing ___.

up

Alduronic acid oxidizes the ___ or last carbon.

C6

In human bodies, excess glucose is stored as ___.

glycogen

Examples of polysaccharides include ___ and ___.

cellulose, starch

In polysaccharides, a straight chain linkage is usually ___, while a branched chain linkage is usually ___.

1,4; 1,6

NADP stands for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ___.

phosphate

Heparin is used as an ___ to treat thrombotic events.

anticoagulant

The cell walls of plants are made up of ___ units.

Β-glucose

Pectin is used as a ___ agent to help stools pass more easily through the intestines.

stool bulking

Monosaccharides can undergo several reactions, most notably ___ reactions.

oxidation-reduction

Sucrose has no free ___ carbon atoms.

anomeric

Structural isomers have the same ___ formula but different ___ arrangements.

molecular, bonding

Amylopectin is a ___ component of starch.

branched

Glycogen has branching that is ___ times more frequent than starch.

3

A glycosidic bond is formed by ___ and broken by ___.

condensation, hydrolysis

In the glycolysis pathway, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) is used in ___ and carbohydrate metabolism.

respiration

Lactose is connected in a ___ 1,4 glycosidic linkage.

beta

The bonds between monosaccharides in di- and oligosaccharides are called ___ bonds.

glycosidic

In humans, glycogen in muscles supplies ___ with glucose and energy.

muscles

Polysaccharides are ___ in Benedict's Test.

negative

Pentoses have the chemical formula ___

C5H10O5

Starch is the ___ storage of plants.

energy

In the Haworth projection, the alpha configuration has the OH group pointing ___.

down

The configuration is termed ___ if the —OH group is below the ring.

alpha

Examples of hexoses include ___, ___, and ___.

galactose, glucose, fructose

Aldaric acid, a strong oxidizing agent, can oxidize both the ___ and ___ carbons.

1st, last

Glycogen is often referred to as ___ starch.

animal

Glycogen is made up of ___ units.

α-glucose

Homopolysaccharides contain only ___ type of monosaccharide unit.

one

Examples of hexoses include ___, ___, and ___.

glucose, fructose, galactose

Sucrose is composed of ___ and ___.

glucose, fructose

Pectin is a major component of the ___ that binds cells together.

middle lamella

The D form of glucose is ___-rotatory, meaning it rotates light to the ___.

dextro, right

Chitin is the second most abundant ___ and makes up the rigid coating of exoskeletons.

polysaccharide

In forming the Haworth projection, Carbon ___ will attack Carbon ___.

5, 1

Chitin can trigger an ___ response in the immune system.

allergy-like

Aldonic acid, a weak oxidizing agent, can only oxidize the ___ carbon.

C1

Isomaltose has glycosidic linkage found in ___ 1,6 linkages.

alpha

Polysaccharides are polymeric carbohydrates that contain many ___ units covalently bonded to each other.

monosaccharide

In humans, glycogen in the liver supplies glucose for the ___ body.

entire

In plants, glyceraldehyde is used for ___.

photosynthesis

___, ___, and ___ are nucleotides that all contain ribose.

AMP, ADP, ATP

Cellobiose is similar to maltose but differs in its ___ 1,4 glycosidic linkages.

beta

In the Fischer projection, L- isomers have the hydroxyl group (-OH) on the ___ side.

left

Monosaccharides consist of a single ___ chain and typically have ___ to ___ carbon atoms.

carbon, 3, 9

Hexoses are needed for the formation of ___ and make up most of the food we ingest.

polysaccharides

Amylose is an ___ form of starch that is ___ and readily digested.

unbranched, linear

___ is commonly found in honey, molasses, and simple syrup.

Glucose

The common name for glucitol, found in chewing gum, is ___.

sorbitol

Important examples of polysaccharides include ___ in the cell wall of plants, ___ in plants, and ___ in animals.

cellulose, starch, glycogen

Examples of homopolysaccharides include ___, ___, and ___ which contain repeating units of glucose.

cellulose, starch, glycogen

Epimers differ from each other only at ___ carbon.

one

Amylose constitutes ___ to ___% of stored starch in plants.

15-20%

A reducing sugar gives a ___ precipitate on heating with Benedict's solution.

brick-red

Polysaccharides are also known as ___.

glycan

Glyceraldehyde is used in the formation of ___, which is important for lipid formation.

glycerol

Chitin consists of ___ units.

N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (NAG)

In the Fischer projection, D- isomers have the hydroxyl group (-OH) on the ___ side.

right

Reduction of sugars produces sugar alcohols, also known as ___ alcohols.

polyhydroxy

The most abundant, naturally occurring polysaccharide is ___.

cellulose

Pentoses are made up of ___ carbon atoms and examples include ___, ___, and ___.

5, ribose, deoxyribose, ribulose

NAD stands for ___ adenine dinucleotide.

nicotinamide

Anomers change the position of the ___ group attached to the anomeric carbon.

hydroxyl

Fructose is commonly found in ___.

fruits

The Fischer projection of D-glucose is shaped like a ___ and is the easiest way to draw long-chain molecules with several chiral carbons.

fishbone

___ and ___ are the two disaccharides that are reducing sugars.

Maltose, lactose

One of the functions of polysaccharides is to provide ___ and ___ from consumption.

food, energy

Monosaccharides are the ___ unit of carbohydrates and are also known as the simplest ___

smallest, sugars

Heteropolysaccharides contain ___ or more types of monosaccharide unit.

two

Monosaccharides are ___-soluble, white crystalline solids.

water

Ribose is needed in the synthesis of some ___, such as NAD and NADP.

coenzymes

Cellulose can be found in ___, ___ in clothes, and ___.

books, cotton, wood

The classification of monosaccharides is based on the number of ___ atoms they contain.

carbon

___ are the most biologically important monosaccharides in humans.

Hexoses