p.21
Clinical Case Study on Emphysema
What did arterial blood gases indicate under stable conditions?
Severe hypoxemia and hypocapnia.
p.7
Respiratory System Anatomy: Nasal Cavity
What type of epithelium is found in the OroPharynx?
Stratified Squamous Non-keratinized.
p.21
Clinical Case Study on Emphysema
What did pulmonary function tests reveal in the patient?
An increase in all pulmonary volumes including forced expiratory volume.
p.9
Respiratory System Anatomy: Larynx
What are the main functions of the larynx?
The larynx is involved in breathing and producing sound.
p.13
Respiratory System Anatomy: Bronchi & Bronchioles
What type of cells are primarily found in the smallest bronchioles?
The smallest bronchioles primarily contain simple cuboidal epithelium with mucous secreting club cells.
p.14
Respiratory System Anatomy: Bronchi & Bronchioles
What structures might be found in the walls of respiratory bronchioles?
Small knobs of smooth muscle, collagen, and elastic fibers.
p.10
Respiratory System Anatomy: Trachea
What type of epithelium lines the trachea?
The trachea is lined with respiratory epithelium.
p.22
Clinical Case Study on Emphysema
What subjective information is provided in the patient report?
The subjective information includes the patient's reported symptoms such as progressive worsening of dyspnea on exertion, syncope on exertion, and his lifestyle as a sedentary manager.
p.14
Respiratory System Anatomy: Bronchi & Bronchioles
What type of epithelium is found in respiratory bronchioles?
Simple cuboidal, unciliated.
p.10
Respiratory System Anatomy: Trachea
What is the structure that supports the trachea?
The trachea is supported by C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage.
p.7
Respiratory System Anatomy: Nasal Cavity
What type of epithelium is found in the Nasal Pharynx?
Ciliated Pseudostratified Columnar and Stratified Squamous Non-keratinized.
p.9
Respiratory System Anatomy: Larynx
What type of epithelial lining is found in the larynx?
The epithelial lining varies depending on the region and includes ciliated pseudostratified columnar, stratified squamous non-keratinized, and simple cuboidal.
p.9
Respiratory System Anatomy: Larynx
What are the components of the lamina propria in the larynx?
The lamina propria contains the vocal fold (true vocal cord), ventricular fold (false vocal cord), vocalis muscle, and vocal ligament.
p.9
Respiratory System Anatomy: Larynx
What type of glands are present in the larynx?
The larynx contains seromucous glands.
p.10
Respiratory System Anatomy: Trachea
What are the main layers of the trachea?
The main layers of the trachea include the tunica mucosa, tunica submucosa, fibro-elastic layer, and tunica adventitia.
p.9
Respiratory System Anatomy: Larynx
What is the structure of the larynx?
The larynx is a hollow, tubular structure located at the upper end of the trachea.
p.16
Respiratory System Anatomy: Alveolar Ducts, Sacs & Aveoli
What are Type I Pneumocytes?
Type I Pneumocytes are thin cells that line the alveoli and are involved in gas exchange.
p.16
Respiratory System Anatomy: Alveolar Ducts, Sacs & Aveoli
What role do macrophages play in the respiratory system?
Macrophages in the lungs help to clear pathogens and debris through phagocytosis.
p.3
Respiratory System Overview
What are the two functional regions of the respiratory system?
The two functional regions are the conducting passages and the respiratory passages.
p.8
Respiratory System Anatomy: Epiglottis
What is the primary function of the epiglottis?
The epiglottis folds over the opening of the trachea during swallowing to prevent food from entering the trachea.
p.15
Respiratory System Anatomy: Alveolar Ducts, Sacs & Aveoli
What surrounds the alveoli?
Alveoli are surrounded by capillaries.
p.21
Clinical Case Study on Emphysema
What did the high-resolution CT of the chest show?
Major diffuse patchy ground-glass opacities.
p.22
Clinical Case Study on Emphysema
What objective information is provided in the patient report?
The objective information includes the examination findings of cyanosis, hepatomegaly, edema of the lower limbs, echocardiography results showing normal left-ventricular function, a dilated right ventricle, and a systolic pulmonary-artery pressure of 85 mmHg.
p.13
Respiratory System Anatomy: Bronchi & Bronchioles
What type of epithelium is found in larger bronchioles?
The epithelium in larger bronchioles is usually ciliated simple columnar.
p.13
Respiratory System Anatomy: Bronchi & Bronchioles
How do smaller bronchioles differ from larger bronchioles?
Smaller bronchioles lack cartilage and glands, while larger bronchioles have ciliated simple columnar epithelium.
p.16
Respiratory System Anatomy: Alveolar Ducts, Sacs & Aveoli
What is the function of Type II Pneumocytes?
Type II Pneumocytes produce surfactant, which reduces surface tension in the alveoli.
p.13
Respiratory System Anatomy: Bronchi & Bronchioles
What is a notable feature of the smooth muscle layer in terminal bronchioles?
The smooth muscle layer in terminal bronchioles is generally quite prominent.
p.8
Respiratory System Anatomy: Epiglottis
What surfaces does the epiglottis have and what do they face?
The anterior (lingual) surface faces the tongue, while the posterior (respiratory) surface faces the trachea.
p.8
Respiratory System Anatomy: Epiglottis
What type of epithelium is found on the anterior surface of the epiglottis?
The anterior surface has non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.
p.5
Histology of Primary Respiratory Tissues
What are the four primary histological layers of respiratory tissues found in the nasal cavity, trachea, and bronchi?
1. Respiratory mucosa, 2. Submucosa, 3. Cartilage and/or muscular layer, 4. Adventitia.
p.12
Respiratory System Anatomy: Bronchi & Bronchioles
What is located between the lamina propria and submucosa in the bronchi?
A layer of smooth muscle.
p.20
Clinical Case Study on Emphysema
How does smoking contribute to the pathophysiology of emphysema?
Smoking causes mucus hypersecretion, release of neutrophilic proteolytic enzymes, and inhibits anti-proteolytic enzymes and alveolar macrophages, leading to destruction of elastin fibers.
p.17
Respiratory System Anatomy: Bronchi & Bronchioles
What do the primary bronchi do?
The primary bronchi branch from the trachea and direct air into each lung.
p.15
Respiratory System Anatomy: Alveolar Ducts, Sacs & Aveoli
What is the function of alveolar macrophages?
Alveolar macrophages serve an immune function and are found in abundance in alveoli.
p.6
Respiratory System Anatomy: Nasal Cavity
What type of epithelium is found in the nasal pharynx?
The nasal pharynx contains ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium and stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium.
p.8
Respiratory System Anatomy: Epiglottis
What is the structure of the epiglottis?
The epiglottis is a cartilaginous (elastic) structure located at the posterior of the tongue.
p.8
Respiratory System Anatomy: Epiglottis
What type of epithelium is found on the posterior surface of the epiglottis?
The posterior surface has respiratory epithelium, which is ciliated pseudostratified columnar with goblet cells.
p.4
Respiratory System Anatomy: Bronchi & Bronchioles
What is the function of respiratory bronchioles?
Respiratory bronchioles are involved in gas exchange and connect to alveolar ducts.
p.11
Respiratory System Anatomy
What are the components of the tunica mucosa in the respiratory system?
The tunica mucosa consists of respiratory epithelium and lamina propria, which is made of loose connective tissue.
p.3
Respiratory System Overview
What is the primary function of the respiratory system?
The respiratory system is responsible for the passage of warm moist air for the purpose of extracting oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide.
p.10
Respiratory System Anatomy: Trachea
What is the role of the fibro-elastic layer in the trachea?
The fibro-elastic layer allows flexibility and support to the trachea.
p.20
Clinical Case Study on Emphysema
What is the primary cause of emphysema?
The primary cause of emphysema is chronic exposure to noxious gases, with cigarette smoking being the most common.
p.4
Respiratory System Anatomy: Nasal Cavity
What is the primary function of the nasal cavity in the respiratory system?
The primary function of the nasal cavity is to filter, warm, and humidify the air we breathe.
p.5
Histology of Primary Respiratory Tissues
What is the adventitia in the context of respiratory tissues?
It is the connective tissue layer surrounding the tissues of the respiratory system.
p.4
Respiratory System Anatomy: Bronchi & Bronchioles
What are the primary bronchi?
The primary bronchi are the two main branches that split from the trachea and lead into each lung.
p.15
Respiratory System Anatomy: Alveolar Ducts, Sacs & Aveoli
What are Type II pneumocytes and where are they often found?
Type II pneumocytes are cuboidal with clear cytoplasm and are often found at wall junctions.
p.15
Respiratory System Anatomy: Alveolar Ducts, Sacs & Aveoli
What do Type II pneumocytes secrete?
Type II pneumocytes secrete surfactant.
p.11
Respiratory System Anatomy
What type of cartilage is found in the fibro-elastic layer?
The fibro-elastic layer contains hyaline cartilage.
p.11
Respiratory System Anatomy
What is the composition of the tunica submucosa?
The tunica submucosa is composed of dense irregular connective tissue and glands.
p.16
Respiratory System Anatomy: Alveolar Ducts, Sacs & Aveoli
What is the significance of capillaries in the respiratory system?
Capillaries surround the alveoli and facilitate the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide with red blood cells.
p.3
Histology of Primary Respiratory Tissues
How does the histological composition of respiratory tissues vary?
The histological composition varies according to location and reflects the functional attributes of a given area.
p.20
Clinical Case Study on Emphysema
Is there a definitive treatment for emphysema?
There is no known definitive treatment that can modify the disease process, but medications that relax airways and supplemental oxygen can help mitigate symptoms.
p.17
Respiratory System Anatomy: Bronchi & Bronchioles
What is the function of respiratory bronchioles?
Respiratory bronchioles are involved in gas exchange and lead to alveolar ducts.
p.4
Respiratory System Anatomy: Bronchi & Bronchioles
What are terminal bronchioles?
Terminal bronchioles are the smallest air passages in the lungs that lead to the alveoli.
p.17
Respiratory System Anatomy: Alveolar Ducts, Sacs & Aveoli
What are alveoli?
Alveoli are tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs.
p.11
Respiratory System Anatomy
What is an artifact in tissue samples?
An artifact refers to tissue that has become detached during preparation.
p.3
Respiratory System Overview
Which structures are included in the conducting passages?
The conducting passages include the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and terminal bronchioles.
p.4
Respiratory System Anatomy: Epiglottis
What role does the epiglottis play in the respiratory system?
The epiglottis prevents food and liquid from entering the trachea during swallowing.
p.5
Histology of Primary Respiratory Tissues
What type of epithelium lines the nasal cavity, trachea, and larger diameter primary bronchi?
Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium.
p.4
Respiratory System Anatomy: Alveolar Ducts, Sacs & Aveoli
What are alveoli?
Alveoli are tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs.
p.4
Respiratory System Anatomy
What are conducting passages in the respiratory system?
Conducting passages are the airways that transport air to the lungs but do not participate in gas exchange.
p.11
Respiratory System Anatomy
What is the function of the perichondrium in the respiratory system?
The perichondrium provides support and nourishment to the cartilage.
p.13
Respiratory System Anatomy: Bronchi & Bronchioles
What is the characteristic of the lamina propria in terminal bronchioles?
The lamina propria in terminal bronchioles has no glands.
p.5
Histology of Primary Respiratory Tissues
What is found in the submucosa layer of respiratory tissues?
Connective tissue layer containing blood vessels, nerves, glands, and immune cells.
p.17
Respiratory System Anatomy: Bronchi & Bronchioles
What is the role of terminal bronchioles?
Terminal bronchioles are the last part of the conducting zone and lead to respiratory bronchioles.
p.15
Respiratory System Anatomy: Alveolar Ducts, Sacs & Aveoli
What are alveolar ducts and where do they arise from?
Alveolar ducts arise from respiratory bronchioles and are lined by alveoli.
p.5
Histology of Primary Respiratory Tissues
What types of epithelium line the epiglottis, larynx, and terminal & respiratory bronchioles?
A variety of different epithelium.
p.15
Respiratory System Anatomy: Alveolar Ducts, Sacs & Aveoli
What type of epithelium covers alveoli?
Alveoli are covered on both sides by simple epithelium.
p.20
Clinical Case Study on Emphysema
What is the significance of Alpha one antitrypsin (AAT) in emphysema?
Deficiencies in Alpha one antitrypsin (AAT), which inhibits trypsin and neutrophil elastase, are linked to non-smoking related cases of emphysema.
p.6
Respiratory System Anatomy: Nasal Cavity
What is the structure of the nasal cavity?
The nasal cavity starts behind the nose and progresses to the nasal pharynx. It contains bone, cartilage, muscle, and both respiratory and olfactory epithelium.
p.6
Respiratory System Anatomy: Nasal Cavity
How does the respiratory epithelium in the nasal cavity assist in air conditioning?
The respiratory epithelium secretes mucus, and cilia move debris toward the pharynx.
p.3
Respiratory System Overview
What is the role of conducting passages in the respiratory system?
Conducting passages convey air to the lungs while removing debris, warming, and humidifying the air.
p.3
Respiratory System Overview
Where does gas exchange occur in the respiratory system?
Gas exchange occurs in the respiratory passages, specifically in the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli.
p.20
Clinical Case Study on Emphysema
What is emphysema?
Emphysema is a pathological diagnosis characterized by abnormal permanent enlargement of lung air spaces with destruction of their walls, affecting the acinus, without fibrosis.
p.4
Respiratory System Anatomy: Trachea
What is the main function of the trachea?
The trachea serves as the main airway, conducting air to and from the lungs.
p.17
Respiratory System Anatomy: Epiglottis
What is the role of the epiglottis?
The epiglottis prevents food and liquid from entering the trachea during swallowing.
p.17
Respiratory System Anatomy: Trachea
What is the primary function of the trachea?
The trachea serves as the main airway, conducting air to and from the lungs.
p.4
Respiratory System Anatomy: Larynx
What is the function of the larynx?
The larynx is responsible for voice production and protecting the airway during swallowing.
p.6
Respiratory System Anatomy: Nasal Cavity
What is the primary function of the nasal cavity?
The nasal cavity conditions air to be received by other areas of the respiratory tract, warming or cooling it to within 1°C of body temperature due to the large surface area provided by the nasal conchae.
p.17
Respiratory System Anatomy
What are respiratory passages?
Respiratory passages include structures that facilitate gas exchange, such as bronchioles and alveoli.
p.11
Respiratory System Anatomy
What type of glands are found in the mucosal layer?
Mucosal glands are present in the mucosal layer.
p.12
Respiratory System Anatomy: Bronchi & Bronchioles
How do bronchi differ from the trachea?
Bronchi have plates rather than rings of cartilage and a layer of smooth muscle between the lamina propria and submucosa.
p.12
Respiratory System Anatomy: Bronchi & Bronchioles
What are the three types of bronchi mentioned?
Primary, secondary, and tertiary bronchi.
p.5
Histology of Primary Respiratory Tissues
What is the composition of the cartilage and/or muscular layer in respiratory tissues?
The type of cartilage varies depending on location.
p.20
Clinical Case Study on Emphysema
What role do neutrophil-derived proteases play in emphysema?
Neutrophil-derived proteases, such as elastase and proteinase, destroy elastin fibers in the connective tissue of lung parenchyma.
p.17
Respiratory System Anatomy: Nasal Cavity
What is the function of the nasal cavity in the respiratory system?
The nasal cavity filters, warms, and moistens the air we breathe.
p.15
Respiratory System Anatomy: Alveolar Ducts, Sacs & Aveoli
What are Type I pneumocytes and what is their shape?
Type I pneumocytes are squamous in shape with protruding nuclei and make up the thinnest section of the alveolus wall.
p.17
Respiratory System Anatomy: Larynx
What is the primary function of the larynx?
The larynx is responsible for sound production and protecting the airway during swallowing.
p.10
Respiratory System Anatomy: Trachea
What is the function of the tunica adventitia in the trachea?
The tunica adventitia provides structural support and connects the trachea to surrounding tissues.
p.12
Respiratory System Anatomy: Trachea
What does the trachea bifurcate into?
The trachea bifurcates into two primary bronchi.
p.5
Histology of Primary Respiratory Tissues
What does the respiratory mucosa include?
It includes epithelium (subtype varies depending on location) and supporting lamina propria (thin lining of loose connective tissue).
p.20
Clinical Case Study on Emphysema
What are the symptoms of emphysema related to tobacco exposure?
Symptoms usually begin after at least 20 packs per year of tobacco exposure.
p.15
Respiratory System Anatomy: Alveolar Ducts, Sacs & Aveoli
What are alveolar sacs?
Alveolar sacs are clusters of alveoli.
p.17
Respiratory System Anatomy
What are conducting passages in the respiratory system?
Conducting passages are the airways that transport air to the lungs but do not participate in gas exchange.
