p.12
Functional Areas of the Brain: Broca's and Wernicke's Areas
What does the motor homunculus represent?
It represents the body map of motor control in the brain.
p.8
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
Describe the structure of a pyramidal neuron.
It has a pyramid-shaped cell body with an apical dendrite and several extensively branching basal dendrites.
p.7
Synaptic Transmission and Communication Between Neurons
What do presynaptic terminals contain that is crucial for neurotransmission?
Small synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters.
p.8
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What is unique about pseudounipolar neurons?
They have one process leaving the cell body that gives rise to both peripheral and central branches.
p.13
Neural Circuits and Reflexes
What do loss of function experiments test?
Whether a missing component is necessary for a function.
p.5
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
Who was Camillo Golgi?
A scientist who believed in the reticular theory and discovered the Golgi apparatus.
p.5
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What does the Golgi stain allow scientists to visualize?
The entire morphology of individualized neurons.
p.5
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
How is the Golgi stain applied to neural tissue?
By soaking it in a solution of silver nitrate and potassium dichromate in the dark for several weeks.
p.5
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What happens when the Golgi stain is applied to nerve cells?
Black precipitates form, rendering the cells visible against an unstained background.
p.5
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What is the result of the autocatalytic reaction in stained cells?
The majority of the cell can be visualized in its native tissue.
p.7
Synaptic Transmission and Communication Between Neurons
What are the specialized structures on postsynaptic target cells enriched with?
Neurotransmitter receptors.
p.1
Nature vs. Nurture in Neurobiology
Who first coined the phrase 'nature vs. nurture'?
Francis Galton in the 1800s.
p.7
Synaptic Transmission and Communication Between Neurons
What do gap junctions allow to travel between adjacent neurons?
Ions and small molecules.
p.12
Functional Areas of the Brain: Broca's and Wernicke's Areas
What is the role of Wernicke's area?
It is associated with difficulty understanding language.
p.6
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What does the neuron doctrine state?
Neuronal processes do not fuse together to form a continuous reticulum; neurons communicate at distinct contact sites called synapses.
p.8
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What are basket cells known for?
They wrap their axon terminals around the cell bodies of pyramidal cells in the cerebral cortex and Purkinje cells in the cerebellum.
p.8
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What characterizes a multipolar neuron?
It has both dendrites and an axon leaving the cell body.
p.4
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What is the function of microglia?
They act as immune cells, engulfing damaged cells and debris, and help reorganize neuronal connections.
p.4
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What do oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells do?
They wrap axons with myelin sheaths in their respective parts of the nervous system.
p.11
Neural Circuits and Reflexes
What comprises spinal reflexes in vertebrates?
A sensory neuron that receives external stimuli and a motor neuron that controls muscle contraction.
p.10
Synaptic Transmission and Communication Between Neurons
What is synaptic transmission?
The process of neurotransmitter release from the presynaptic neuron and neurotransmitter reception at the postsynaptic neuron.
p.4
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What did Mathias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann propose in 1839?
The cell theory: all living organisms are composed of cells as their basic units.
p.12
Functional Areas of the Brain: Broca's and Wernicke's Areas
What is the function of Broca's area?
It is responsible for our ability to speak and have good understanding.
p.4
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What are the four subtypes of glial cells?
Oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells, Astrocytes, and Microglia.
p.4
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What role do astrocytes play in the nervous system?
They are involved in neural development and regulation of neuronal communication.
p.11
Neural Circuits and Reflexes
What initiates the avoidance response in zebrafish larvae?
A sensory neuron detects a splash of water.
p.11
Neural Circuits and Reflexes
What is the role of the motor neuron in the zebrafish larvae's response?
It communicates impulses to run.
p.6
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What is electron microscopy used for?
To visualize structures at nanometer resolution.
p.2
Neuroplasticity and Learning in Animals
How did barn owls adapt to the prisms in the experiment?
They adjusted their auditory map to match their visual map.
p.2
Neuroplasticity and Learning in Animals
What is neuroethology?
The field of study that emphasizes observing animal behavior in their natural environments.
p.13
Neural Circuits and Reflexes
What do gain of function experiments involve?
Adding a specific component to the system.
p.6
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What are neurons considered according to Ramon y Cajal?
Functionally, structurally, and embryonically independent units of the nervous system.
p.6
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What happens during the development of neurons?
Neurons start with only cell bodies, and axons grow out from the cell bodies to their final destinations.
p.6
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What experimental technique allowed observation of axon growth?
In vitro experiments made possible by tissue culturing techniques.
p.4
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
How do myelin sheaths affect information propagation?
They increase the speed at which information is propagated along axons.
p.11
Neural Circuits and Reflexes
How do sensory neurons detect the stretching of muscle spindles?
By converting the physical impact of the hammer into electrical signals (receptor potentials).
p.3
Structure and Organization of the Nervous System
What are nerves?
Discrete bundles of axons.
p.1
Epigenetic Modifications and Gene Expression
What are epigenetic modifications?
Changes made to DNA and chromatin that alter gene expression without modifying DNA sequences.
p.3
Synaptic Transmission and Communication Between Neurons
What are dendritic spines?
Protrusions on dendrites that specialize in information transfer.
p.9
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What is an action potential?
The elementary unit of nerve impulses propagated along axons.
p.13
Neural Circuits and Reflexes
What is a sensory homunculus?
A representation of the sensory areas of the body in the brain.
p.13
Neural Circuits and Reflexes
What is an example of a perturbation experiment?
Putting prisms on a barn owl.
p.10
Synaptic Transmission and Communication Between Neurons
Where is the action potential initiated in sensory neurons?
At the junction between terminal endings and the peripheral axon.
p.10
Synaptic Transmission and Communication Between Neurons
How is information transmitted in sensory neurons?
By the peripheral and central axon to the spinal cord across a long distance.
p.10
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
Where does action potential initiation likely occur in invertebrate neurons?
At the junction between the dendritic and axonal compartments.
p.10
Synaptic Transmission and Communication Between Neurons
How is information transmitted at electrical synapses?
By a membrane potential change in ions across the gap junction.
p.10
Synaptic Transmission and Communication Between Neurons
What triggers neurotransmitter release at chemical synapses?
Arrival of action potentials at presynaptic terminals.
p.2
Neuroplasticity and Learning in Animals
What is neuroplasticity?
Changes in the nervous system in response to experience and learning.
p.4
Structure and Organization of the Nervous System
What is white matter composed of in the CNS?
Oligodendrocytes and myelinated axons.
p.10
Synaptic Transmission and Communication Between Neurons
What does interneuronal communication rely on?
Neurotransmitter release and reception at chemical synapses.
p.2
Neuroplasticity and Learning in Animals
What are releasers in the context of fixed action patterns?
The essential features of the stimulus that activate the fixed action pattern.
p.11
Neural Circuits and Reflexes
What is convergent excitation?
When several neurons synapse onto a postsynaptic neuron.
p.2
Structure and Organization of the Nervous System
How is the mammalian brain organized?
It consists of the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, cerebellum, and brainstem.
p.1
Neuroplasticity and Learning in Animals
What was the purpose of putting prism glasses on barn owls in the experiment?
To distort their vision and study the correlation between auditory and visual systems.
p.3
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What are dendrites?
Thick, bushy processes that receive information.
p.9
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What type of neurons are usually found in invertebrates?
Unipolar neurons, which extend a single process giving rise to both dendritic and axonal branches.
p.9
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What is the axon initial segment (axon hillock)?
The site of action potential initiation.
p.8
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What does the theory of dynamic polarization state?
Transmission of neuronal signals proceeds from dendrites to cell bodies to axons.
p.4
Structure and Organization of the Nervous System
What is gray matter composed of in the CNS?
Astrocytes, neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, axon terminals, and connections between neurons.
p.10
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
How is intraneuronal communication achieved?
By membrane potential changes in the form of graded potentials and action potentials.
p.11
Neural Circuits and Reflexes
What happens after sensory neurons propagate electrical signals to the spinal cord?
They release neurotransmitters onto the dendrites of motor neurons.
p.10
Neural Circuits and Reflexes
What are neural circuits?
Ensembles of interconnected neurons that work together to perform a specific function.
p.11
Neural Circuits and Reflexes
What are circuit motifs in the nervous system?
Common configurations of neural circuits that allow specific functions.
p.2
Structure and Organization of the Nervous System
What are the main components of the central nervous system (CNS)?
The brain and spinal cord.
p.3
Synaptic Transmission and Communication Between Neurons
What are presynaptic terminals?
The ends of axons that specialize in the transmission of information between neurons.
p.9
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What are synaptic potentials?
A type of graded potential produced at postsynaptic sites in response to neurotransmitter release.
p.11
Neural Circuits and Reflexes
What is the function of the axons of motor neurons in the knee jerk reflex?
They extend outwards from the spinal cord and terminate in the same extensor muscle.
p.2
Neuroplasticity and Learning in Animals
How does neuroplasticity change with age?
It declines with age; juvenile owls adapt more quickly than adult owls.
p.3
Structure and Organization of the Nervous System
What does the neuraxis refer to?
The rostral-caudal axis or CNS axis.
p.3
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What are typical neurons characterized by?
Having two neuronal processes (cytoplasmic extensions).
p.3
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What are axons?
Long, thin processes that extend far beyond the cell body.
p.9
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What is the function of dendrites in a neuron?
Dendrites receive information.
p.9
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
How do neurons convey the intensity of signals?
By using the frequencies of action potentials.
p.3
Structure and Organization of the Nervous System
What are ganglia?
Clusters of cell bodies of nerve cells.
p.2
Structure and Organization of the Nervous System
What are the three developmental regions of the brain?
Forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
p.2
Structure and Organization of the Nervous System
What segments make up the spinal cord?
Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral groups.
p.3
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What is the cell body of a neuron?
The center of the neuron.
p.9
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What are graded potentials?
Membrane potentials that vary continuously in magnitude, induced by sensory stimuli.
p.4
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What was the reticular theory regarding the nervous system?
It proposed that nerve cells were linked together to form a giant net, or reticulum, constituting the unit of the nervous system.
p.1
Heritability and Genetic Contributions to Traits
How is heritability defined?
The contribution of genetic differences to trait differences.
p.3
Structure and Organization of the Nervous System
How is the nervous system traditionally examined?
In three sections: transverse, sagittal, and horizontal.
p.1
Nature vs. Nurture in Neurobiology
What is an example of instinctive behavior in animals?
A baby penguin nudging the beak of its parent for food.
p.1
Nature vs. Nurture in Neurobiology
What does 'innate' refer to in the context of behavior?
Something genetically programmed within an organism from birth.
p.9
Neurons and Glial Cells: Types and Functions
What are the three main components of a neuron?
1. Receptive component (cell body and dendrites), 2. Transmission component (axon), 3. Effector component (axon terminals).
