Responses of cells to normal stimulation by hormones or mechanical stress.
Pyknosis, karyorrhexis, and karyolysis.
Fragmentation of the pyknotic nucleus.
Leakage of cell contents through damaged plasma membrane.
The ability of the cell to maintain a dynamically stable internal state.
Chromosomal abnormalities and specific gene mutations, such as congenital malformations in Down syndrome and sickle cell anemia.
Oxygen deficiency that affects aerobic oxidative respiration and ATP generation.
Ischemia due to arterial obstruction, inadequate oxygenation of blood, and reduction in oxygen-carrying capacity (e.g., anemia, carbon monoxide poisoning).
Dissolution of the nucleus with fading basophilia due to DNase activity.
Physiologic and pathologic.
Bilharzial infection can cause transitional epithelium to change into squamous epithelium.
Discontinuities in plasma and organelle membranes.
A stage of cell injury where function and morphology can return to normal if the damaging stimulus is removed.
Sodium and water influx due to failure of energy-dependent ion pumps in the plasma membrane.
Enzymes derived from lysosomes of dying cells or from recruited leukocytes.
Enlargement of the uterus during pregnancy due to estrogen.
Bone formation in soft tissues, particularly in areas of injury.
Responses to stress that allow cells to modulate their structure and function to escape injury, but at the expense of normal function.
Nuclear shrinkage and increased basophilia with DNA condensing into a dark shrunken mass.
Pallor due to compression of capillaries and an increase in organ weight.
Increased functional demand or hormonal stimulation.
Increased eosinophilia due to increased binding of eosin to denatured cytoplasmic proteins and loss of basophilic RNA.
Hormones or growth factors.
Shrinkage in the size of cells due to loss of cell substance.
The entire tissue or organ is reduced in size.
A change where one adult cell type is replaced by another adult cell type better able to withstand adverse environments.
It occurs when the stress is mild or transient, allowing cells to return to their stable baseline.
Trauma, extremes of temperature, radiation, electric shock, and sudden changes in atmospheric pressure.
The appearance of cytoplasmic lipid vacuoles.
Plasma membrane changes, mitochondrial swelling, dilation of the ER, nuclear changes, and myelin figures.
Changes in the cytoplasm and nuclei of injured cells.
A type of metaplasia where normal epithelial cells are replaced by a different type, such as in smokers where ciliated columnar cells are replaced by stratified squamous epithelium.
A glassy, homogeneous appearance.
Aging impairs replicative and repair abilities of cells, diminishing their ability to respond to damage and leading to cell death.
An increase in the size of cells resulting in an increase in the size of the organ, without the formation of new cells.
Necrosis and apoptosis.
To achieve a new steady state while preserving viability and function.
Excess or deficiency, such as protein-calorie insufficiency, specific vitamin deficiencies, and excessive dietary fat intake.
Distended and pinched-off segments of the endoplasmic reticulum.
In organs involved in lipid metabolism.
Myelin figures that may be phagocytosed or degraded into fatty acids.
Hypertrophy caused by conditions like systemic hypertension or aortic stenosis.
An increase in the number of cells in an organ due to increased proliferation.
Hormonal hyperplasia of the female breast at puberty.
Decreased workload, loss of innervation, diminished blood supply, inadequate nutrition, loss of endocrine stimulation, and aging.
Morphological changes accompanying cell death due to loss of membrane integrity.
Cells may adapt, become injured reversibly, or suffer irreversible damage and die.
Severe, persistent, and rapid onset stress that exceeds the adaptive capability of the cell.
Marked dilation with large amorphous densities.
Cellular swelling and fatty change.
Inability to restore mitochondrial function, loss of membrane structure, and loss of DNA integrity.
Reactions such as autoimmune reactions against an individual's own tissues and allergic reactions against environmental substances.
Hypoxia, ischemia, chemical agents, and infectious agents.
Reduced blood supply to tissues, often leading to hypoxia.
Chemical agents like air pollutants, insecticides, and drugs, as well as infectious agents like viruses and bacteria.
Calcified dead cells due to binding with calcium salts.
