p.55
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What is the partial pressure gradient for CO2 in external respiration?
The partial pressure gradient for CO2 is less steep, with venous blood P CO2 at 45 mm Hg and alveolar P CO2 at 40 mm Hg.
p.34
Key Epithelium in the Respiratory Tract
What type of motion do cilia exhibit to propel mucus?
Cilia create a traveling wave through the coordinated activity of many cilia acting together.
p.9
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Steps in Embryogenesis That Give Rise to Mesenchymal Tissue
What is the starting point of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT)?
EMT begins with the basement membrane.
p.35
Key Epithelium in the Respiratory Tract
What happens to cilia and epithelium after 9 months of smoke exposure?
9 months of smoke exposure destroys cilia and damages the epithelium.
p.14
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Molecular Factors Involved
What does transitional EMT show in terms of staining?
Transitional EMT would show colocalization of stains.
p.44
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What is the pleurae?
The pleurae is a thin, double-layered serosal membrane that divides the thoracic cavity into two pleural compartments and the mediastinum.
p.59
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What is the effect of autoregulation of O2 on arteriolar diameter?
O2 autoregulates arteriolar diameter, causing constriction when ventilation is less than perfusion and dilation when ventilation is greater than perfusion.
p.60
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What happens when ventilation and perfusion (V/Q) are not matched in the lungs?
When V/Q is not matched, it can lead to inefficient gas exchange, even if total ventilation and blood flow volumes are normal. V and Q must match in all areas of the lung for optimal function.
p.58
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (2)
What happens to systemic arterioles in response to oxygen levels?
Systemic arterioles dilate when oxygen is low and constrict when oxygen is high.
p.17
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Steps in Embryogenesis That Give Rise to Mesenchymal Tissue
What is Type 1 EMT associated with?
Type 1 EMT is associated with embryogenesis.
p.34
Key Epithelium in the Respiratory Tract
At what speed does mucus move in the respiratory tract?
Mucus moves at approximately 0.5 - 1 mm/min.
p.25
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What are the four processes involved in respiration?
1. Pulmonary ventilation (breathing): movement of air into and out of lungs. 2. External respiration: exchange of O2 and CO2 between lungs and blood. 3. Transport of O2 and CO2 in blood. 4. Internal respiration: exchange of O2 and CO2 between systemic blood vessels and tissues.
p.14
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Molecular Factors Involved
What are the colors used to identify different components in the human kidney section for EMT identification?
Green represents E. Cadherin, Red represents vimentin, and Blue represents DNA (nuclei).
p.18
Fibrosis and Scarring Related to EMT
How can overactive myofibroblasts affect organ function?
Overactive myofibroblasts can prevent normal organ function.
p.36
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What do respiratory bronchioles lead into?
Respiratory bronchioles lead into alveolar ducts.
p.5
Key Epithelium in the Respiratory Tract
What is the typical thickness of epithelial cell layers?
Usually one cell layer thick.
p.17
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Steps in Embryogenesis That Give Rise to Mesenchymal Tissue
What are the subtypes of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT)?
Type 1 EMT is related to embryogenesis, Type 2 EMT involves tissue regeneration and organ fibrosis, and Type 3 EMT is associated with cancer progression and metastasis.
p.43
Vulnerable Cellular Anatomy within the Respiratory Tract Relevant to Respiratory Pathologies
What organs herniated into the thoracic space in the patient with diaphragmatic rupture?
Stomach and small intestine.
p.11
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Pathological Significance
What does GGO indicate in lung scans?
GGO indicates a loss of signal, characterized by increased attenuation.
p.5
Key Epithelium in the Respiratory Tract
What types of cellular junctions hold epithelial cells tightly in place?
Adherens, tight, desmosomes, and gap junctions.
p.35
Key Epithelium in the Respiratory Tract
What effect does smoking have on ciliary action?
Smoking inhibits ciliary action.
p.34
Key Epithelium in the Respiratory Tract
What is the critical role of cilia in the respiratory system?
Cilia maintain airway homeostasis by facilitating the mucociliary escalator, which moves mucus and trapped particulates in the rostral direction.
p.51
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (2)
How does normal pulmonary function relate to respiratory pathologies?
Normal pulmonary function is crucial for identifying and understanding respiratory pathologies, as deviations from normal function can indicate underlying issues such as obstructive or restrictive lung diseases.
p.27
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What are the two zones of the lower respiratory system?
The two zones are the respiratory zone and the conducting zone.
p.27
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What is the function of the respiratory zone?
The respiratory zone is the site of gas exchange and consists of microscopic structures such as respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli.
p.27
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (2)
What is the role of the conducting zone in the lower respiratory system?
The conducting zone serves as conduits that transport gas to and from gas exchange sites, cleansing, warming, and humidifying the air.
p.55
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
How does CO2 diffusion compare to oxygen despite a less steep gradient?
CO2 still diffuses in equal amounts with oxygen, even though the gradient is not as steep.
p.16
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Molecular Factors Involved
What proteins increase in abundance during EMT?
N-cadherin, vimentin, fibronectin, Snail-1, Snail-2, goosecoid, FOXC2, Sox10, MMP-2, MMP-3, MMP-9, Integrin αvβ6.
p.53
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What is the representative pulmonary blood flow at rest compared to during exercise?
Pulmonary blood flow increases during exercise compared to rest, allowing for greater oxygen uptake.
p.53
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (2)
How do we get enough oxygen in the blood during exercise?
During exercise, increased pulmonary blood flow enhances gas exchange, allowing for more oxygen to enter the bloodstream.
p.36
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What are alveolar sacs and how many alveoli do they typically contain?
Alveolar sacs are clusters of alveoli, with about 300 million alveoli in most lungs, serving as sites of gas exchange.
p.22
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What is the anatomical organization of the respiratory system?
The respiratory system is organized into upper and lower respiratory tracts, including structures such as the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
p.30
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What does the trachea divide into?
The trachea divides into left and right main bronchi (primary bronchi).
p.16
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Molecular Factors Involved
Which proteins decrease in abundance during EMT?
E-cadherin, desmoplakin, cytokeratin, occludin.
p.16
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Molecular Factors Involved
Which proteins accumulate in the nucleus during EMT?
β-catenin, Smad-2/3, NFκβ, Snail-1, Snail-2, Twist.
p.51
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What are the key points of normal pulmonary function?
Normal pulmonary function includes adequate ventilation, gas exchange, and lung compliance, which are essential for maintaining oxygen levels and removing carbon dioxide.
p.12
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Molecular Factors Involved
What changes occur in epithelial cells during EMT regarding their polarity?
Cells lose their polarity and undergo changes in gene expression.
p.22
Key Epithelium in the Respiratory Tract
What is the key epithelium in the respiratory tract?
The key epithelium in the respiratory tract includes pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, which helps in trapping and clearing particles from the airways.
p.5
Key Epithelium in the Respiratory Tract
What does surface polarity in epithelial cells allow?
It allows cells to adhere and interact with different environmental components.
p.32
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What changes occur in the support structures of the conducting zone from bronchi to bronchioles?
Cartilage rings become irregular plates, and in bronchioles, elastic fibers replace cartilage altogether.
p.3
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Steps in Embryogenesis That Give Rise to Mesenchymal Tissue
What are the important steps in embryogenesis that give rise to mesenchymal tissue?
The important steps include the transition of epithelial cells to a mesenchymal phenotype, which is crucial for tissue development and organ formation.
p.3
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Normal (Non - Pathological) Significance
What is the normal (non-pathological) significance of the Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT)?
The normal significance of EMT includes its role in tissue repair, organ development, and maintaining homeostasis.
p.32
Key Epithelium in the Respiratory Tract
How do cilia and goblet cells change in the conducting zone?
Cilia and goblet cells become more sparse.
p.32
Vulnerable Cellular Anatomy within the Respiratory Tract Relevant to Respiratory Pathologies
What happens to the amount of smooth muscle in the bronchioles?
The amount of smooth muscle increases, allowing bronchioles to provide substantial resistance to air passage.
p.57
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
Why must ventilation and perfusion rates be matched?
They must be matched for optimal, efficient gas exchange.
p.31
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
Which lobe of the left lung is associated with the lobar bronchus?
The superior lobe of the left lung is associated with the lobar bronchus.
p.55
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What is the solubility of CO2 compared to oxygen in plasma and alveolar fluid?
CO2 is 20 times more soluble in plasma and alveolar fluid than oxygen.
p.27
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What structures make up the lower respiratory system?
The lower respiratory system consists of the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
p.44
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What is the function of the parietal pleura?
The parietal pleura attaches to the inner chest wall and covers the thoracic wall, the superior face of the diaphragm, around the heart, and between the lungs.
p.54
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What is the significance of the 55 seconds in the context of oxygen loading?
It indicates the RBC transit time in pulmonary capillaries.
p.41
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What is the role of pulmonary arteries in lung perfusion?
Pulmonary arteries deliver systemic venous blood from the heart to the lungs for oxygenation, branching profusely to feed into pulmonary capillary networks.
p.45
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (2)
What is the pressure condition of intrapleural pressure?
Intrapleural pressure is subatmospheric as the chest wall tries to expand and the lungs try to recoil.
p.47
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What are the costophrenic angles?
The costophrenic angles are the areas where the lowest margin of the diaphragm meets the chest wall.
p.29
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What is notable about the mucosa of the carina?
The mucosa of the carina is highly sensitive.
p.9
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Molecular Factors Involved
What facilitates the association between the basement membrane and epithelial cells?
The association is facilitated by cell adhesion molecules.
p.30
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
How many lobar bronchi are there on the right and left sides?
There are three lobar bronchi on the right and two on the left.
p.57
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What does perfusion mean in external respiration?
Perfusion is the blood flow reaching the alveoli.
p.42
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
Which part of the lung tissue do bronchial arteries supply?
All lung tissue except alveoli.
p.28
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
From where does the trachea extend?
From the larynx into the mediastinum.
p.10
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Normal (Non - Pathological) Significance
In which gender is EMT particularly prominent in adults?
EMT is particularly prominent in women, especially in the mammary gland.
p.56
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What is the thickness of the respiratory membrane?
The respiratory membrane is very thin, measuring 0.5 to 1 μm thick.
p.16
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Pathological Significance
What are the phenotypic markers associated with EMT?
Increased migration, increased invasion, increased spreading, elongated shape, resistance to cell death (anoikis).
p.43
Vulnerable Cellular Anatomy within the Respiratory Tract Relevant to Respiratory Pathologies
What condition was observed in the 21-year-old patient related to the hemidiaphragm?
Elevated left hemidiaphragm due to diaphragmatic rupture.
p.11
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Pathological Significance
What is the typical association of EMT in adults?
EMT in adults is typically a pathological association related to wound healing, inflammation, fibrosis, and tumor progression.
p.36
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What is the sequence of structures from terminal bronchioles to alveolar sacs?
The sequence is terminal bronchioles → respiratory bronchioles → alveolar ducts → alveolar sacs.
p.11
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Pathological Significance
What does consolidation describe in the context of lung scans?
Consolidation describes opaqueness in lung scans.
p.32
Key Epithelium in the Respiratory Tract
What type of epithelium replaces pseudostratified columnar epithelium in the conducting zone?
Cuboidal epithelium replaces pseudostratified columnar epithelium.
p.39
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What role do alveolar macrophages play?
They keep alveolar surfaces sterile by removing debris, with 2 million dead macrophages carried by cilia to the throat and swallowed each hour.
p.39
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What are the components of the respiratory bronchiole?
Smooth muscle and elastic fibers.
p.3
Fibrosis and Scarring Related to EMT
What is the relevance of EMT in tissue fibrosis and scarring?
EMT is relevant in tissue fibrosis and scarring as it contributes to the excessive deposition of extracellular matrix components.
p.42
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
How do bronchial veins interact with pulmonary veins?
Bronchial veins anastomose with pulmonary veins.
p.28
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What are the three layers of the tracheal wall?
1. Mucosa, 2. Submucosa, 3. Adventitia.
p.10
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Normal (Non - Pathological) Significance
What role do mesenchymal cells play in tissues?
Mesenchymal cells have more of a support role in tissue.
p.56
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
How does the surface area of the alveoli compare to the surface area of the skin?
The total surface area of the alveoli is 40 times the surface area of the skin.
p.26
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What are the major organs of the upper respiratory system?
Nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, and larynx.
p.34
Key Epithelium in the Respiratory Tract
How do cilia contribute to pathogen control in the respiratory system?
Cilia trap and limit the spread of pathogens through the movement of mucus.
p.18
Fibrosis and Scarring Related to EMT
What are myofibroblasts?
Myofibroblasts are activated fibroblasts that participate in wound healing.
p.44
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What does the visceral pleura attach to?
The visceral pleura attaches to the lung's surface and is the membrane on the external lung surface.
p.41
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What do pulmonary veins do?
Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from respiratory zones back to the heart.
p.37
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
How thick is the respiratory membrane?
The respiratory membrane is very thin, approximately 0.5 μm, allowing gas exchange by simple diffusion.
p.37
Key Epithelium in the Respiratory Tract
What types of cells make up the alveolar walls?
The alveolar walls consist of a single layer of squamous epithelium (type I alveolar cells) and scattered cuboidal type II alveolar cells that secrete surfactant and antimicrobial proteins.
p.37
Key Epithelium in the Respiratory Tract
What is the function of type II alveolar cells?
Type II alveolar cells secrete surfactant and antimicrobial proteins.
p.39
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What is the relationship between capillaries and alveoli?
Capillaries surround the alveoli, facilitating gas exchange.
p.57
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What controls perfusion in the lungs?
P O2 controls perfusion by changing arteriolar diameter.
p.33
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What type of cells are present in the bronchioles?
Goblet cells are absent (0)
p.26
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What are the major organs of the lower respiratory system?
Trachea, bronchi and branches, lungs, and alveoli.
p.18
Fibrosis and Scarring Related to EMT
What is the role of fibroblasts in tissue/organ injury?
Fibroblasts accumulate at sites of tissue/organ injury, secrete ECM components, and are involved in chronic inflammation and progressive scarring.
p.36
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What structures mark the beginning of the respiratory zone?
The respiratory zone begins where terminal bronchioles feed into respiratory bronchioles.
p.11
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Pathological Significance
What lung condition is associated with COVID-19 as mentioned in the context of EMT?
Ground glass opacification (GGO) is evident in lung scans of COVID-19 patients.
p.29
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What is the carina in relation to the trachea?
The carina is the last tracheal cartilage that expands at the point where the trachea branches into the left and right bronchi.
p.12
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Molecular Factors Involved
How does the cytoskeleton reorganize during EMT?
The actin structure changes, allowing cells to become motile and invasive, forming lamellipodia and filopodia structures.
p.29
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What is the Isothermic Saturation Boundary (ISB)?
The ISB is the point at which air is 100% saturated and at 37 °C.
p.47
Fibrosis and Scarring Related to EMT
What is pleural effusion?
Pleural effusion is the presence of fluid in the pleural space.
p.47
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What is thoracentesis?
Thoracentesis is a surgical procedure for the removal of excess pleural fluid via tube insertion into the pleural cavity.
p.52
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What drives the flow of oxygen into the blood?
The steep partial pressure gradient for O2 between blood and lungs
p.10
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Normal (Non - Pathological) Significance
What is EMT in the non-pathological context?
EMT is a normal process during tissue and organ development.
p.6
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Steps in Embryogenesis That Give Rise to Mesenchymal Tissue
How do mesenchymal cells move?
Mesenchymal cells move individually and create a trail as they travel.
p.28
Key Epithelium in the Respiratory Tract
What is contained in the submucosa of the trachea?
Connective tissue with seromucous glands.
p.58
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
How does local P O2 influence perfusion in the lungs?
Changes in P O2 in alveoli cause changes in the diameters of arterioles. Where alveolar O2 is high, arterioles dilate; where alveolar O2 is low, arterioles constrict. This directs blood to alveoli with high oxygen for better oxygen uptake.
p.59
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What occurs when ventilation is less than perfusion in the alveoli?
It causes a mismatch of ventilation and perfusion, leading to decreased P CO2 and P O2, resulting in pulmonary arterioles constricting.
p.29
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
How does the right bronchus differ from the left bronchus?
The right bronchus deviates 20 to 30 degrees from midline, is smaller in diameter, and is twice as long compared to the left bronchus, which deviates 45 to 55 degrees from midline.
p.30
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
How does the right main bronchus compare to the left main bronchus?
The right main bronchus is wider, shorter, and more vertical than the left.
p.17
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Pathological Significance
What is the focus of Type 3 EMT?
Type 3 EMT focuses on cancer progression and metastasis.
p.47
Vulnerable Cellular Anatomy within the Respiratory Tract Relevant to Respiratory Pathologies
How does pleural effusion affect the costophrenic angles on a chest x-ray?
Fluid settles into the costophrenic angles, blunting their outline on a chest x-ray.
p.19
Fibrosis and Scarring Related to EMT
What happens to resident fibroblasts during the process of fibrosis?
Resident fibroblasts become activated and transform into myofibroblasts.
p.6
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Molecular Factors Involved
What properties do mesenchymal cells possess?
Mesenchymal cells have stem cell properties and can give rise to other cell types.
p.7
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Steps in Embryogenesis That Give Rise to Mesenchymal Tissue
Where is mesenchyme mostly found?
Mesenchyme is mostly found in the embryo and is not prominent in adults.
p.31
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What are the main bronchi of the left lung?
The left main (primary) bronchus leads to the lobar (secondary) bronchus.
p.28
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What structure supports the trachea and prevents its collapse?
C-shaped cartilage rings.
p.12
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Molecular Factors Involved
What happens to epithelial cell-cell contacts during the Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT)?
Epithelial cell-cell contacts disassemble, losing tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions.
p.59
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What happens when ventilation is greater than perfusion?
This mismatch causes local decreases in P CO2 and increases in P O2, leading to dilation of pulmonary arterioles serving those alveoli.
p.45
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What is the function of pleural fluid?
Pleural fluid fills the pleural cavity, providing lubrication and surface tension that assists in the expansion and recoil of the lungs, lubricates membranes during breathing, and provides molecular cohesive forces that keep membranes from separating.
p.22
Vulnerable Cellular Anatomy within the Respiratory Tract Relevant to Respiratory Pathologies
What is the vulnerable cellular anatomy within the respiratory tract relevant to respiratory pathologies?
The vulnerable cellular anatomy includes ciliated epithelial cells, goblet cells, and basal cells, which can be affected by various respiratory diseases.
p.37
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What is the respiratory membrane?
The respiratory membrane is a blood-air barrier that consists of alveolar and capillary walls along with their fused basement membranes.
p.4
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Steps in Embryogenesis That Give Rise to Mesenchymal Tissue
What was the traditional view of organism growth regarding cell derivation?
The traditional view was that all cells in the body are derived from a single cell zygote.
p.42
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
From where do bronchial arteries arise?
They arise from the aorta.
p.7
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Steps in Embryogenesis That Give Rise to Mesenchymal Tissue
What is the origin of mesenchyme?
Mesenchyme has embryonic origins.
p.7
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Molecular Factors Involved
What type of cells make up mesenchyme?
Mesenchyme consists of loosely organized stellate-shaped cells that form with proteins and fluid to create the extracellular matrix (ECM).
p.31
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What are the smallest branches of the bronchi?
Terminal bronchioles are the smallest branches, measuring less than 0.5 mm in diameter.
p.31
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What is the function of the trachea in the respiratory system?
The trachea serves as the main airway leading to the bronchi.
p.9
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Molecular Factors Involved
What is the composition of the basement membrane?
The basement membrane is composed of proteins that make an extracellular matrix.
p.30
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What is the function of each main bronchus?
Each main bronchus enters the hilum of one lung.
p.30
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What do the main bronchi branch into?
Each main bronchus branches into lobar bronchi (secondary bronchi).
p.57
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What is ventilation in the context of external respiration?
Ventilation refers to the amount of gas reaching the alveoli.
p.42
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What is the pressure and volume characteristic of bronchial circulation?
High pressure, low volume.
p.19
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Pathological Significance
What structural changes occur during EMT in the context of fibrosis?
There is degradation of the basement membrane and loss of polarity.
p.6
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Normal (Non - Pathological) Significance
How do mesenchymal cells differ in structure compared to other cells?
Mesenchymal cells have weak connective tissue, weak adhesions, and are less rigid and regimented in structure.
p.7
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Normal (Non - Pathological) Significance
What is an exception to the prominence of mesenchyme in adults?
The exception is mesenchymal stem cells, which are present in adults.
p.10
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Normal (Non - Pathological) Significance
Which type of cells are more plastic during EMT?
Epithelial cells are more plastic than others and can convert between epithelial and mesenchymal cell types.
p.12
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Molecular Factors Involved
What do cells express during EMT that affects the extracellular matrix (ECM)?
Cells express matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) that degrade the ECM.
p.39
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What surrounds the alveoli?
Fine elastic fibers and pulmonary capillaries.
p.4
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Steps in Embryogenesis That Give Rise to Mesenchymal Tissue
What happens to cells during development and the transition to postnatal life?
Cells are specified and further specialized during development and the transition to postnatal life.
p.4
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Normal (Non - Pathological) Significance
What was the dogma regarding terminally differentiated cells?
The dogma was that terminally differentiated cells no longer transform or undergo phenotypic changes.
p.4
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Molecular Factors Involved
What discovery challenged the traditional views of cell differentiation?
It was discovered that some cells were more plastic in nature, challenging the idea that terminally differentiated cells do not change.
p.57
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
How is ventilation controlled in the respiratory system?
P CO2 controls ventilation by changing bronchiolar diameter.
p.28
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What are the approximate dimensions of the trachea?
About 4 inches long and ¾ inch in diameter.
p.33
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What type of cartilage is found in the tertiary bronchi?
Cartilage is present in plates (++)
p.41
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
Describe the characteristics of the pulmonary circulation.
It is a low-pressure, high-volume system.
p.41
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What is a notable feature of lung capillary endothelium?
Lung capillary endothelium contains many enzymes that act on different substances in blood, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme which activates blood pressure hormone.
p.19
Fibrosis and Scarring Related to EMT
What is a common consequence of fibrosis in organs like the kidney, lung, liver, and intestine?
Fibrosis in these organs often gives rise to Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT).
p.19
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Pathological Significance
What markers are co-expressed in tissues subject to chronic inflammation?
Co-expression of FSP1, α SMA, and other epithelial specific markers are identified.
p.37
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What structures are involved in the gas exchange process in the lungs?
The structures involved in gas exchange include the alveoli and capillaries.
p.31
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What is the diameter of bronchioles?
Bronchioles are less than 1 mm in diameter.
p.10
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Normal (Non - Pathological) Significance
What role does cell division play in EMT?
Cell division generates more cells and expands tissues.
p.10
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Normal (Non - Pathological) Significance
What is the function of epithelial cells in EMT?
Epithelial cells have a tissue-specific function.
p.17
Fibrosis and Scarring Related to EMT
What does Type 2 EMT involve?
Type 2 EMT involves tissue regeneration and organ fibrosis.
p.9
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Steps in Embryogenesis That Give Rise to Mesenchymal Tissue
How does the basement membrane interact with epithelial cells?
The basement membrane attaches to epithelial cells at the basal side.
p.24
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
How are the respiratory and circulatory systems related?
They are closely coupled to accomplish the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
p.24
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What additional functions does the respiratory system serve?
It also functions in olfaction (sense of smell) and speech.
p.30
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What does each lobar bronchus supply?
Each lobar bronchus supplies one lobe of the lung.
p.6
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Steps in Embryogenesis That Give Rise to Mesenchymal Tissue
What is the role of mesenchyme during embryogenesis?
Mesenchyme forms undifferentiated cells during embryogenesis.
p.7
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Normal (Non - Pathological) Significance
What connective tissues are produced by mesenchyme?
Mesenchyme produces connective tissues such as bones, cartilage, and lymphatics.
p.57
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What mechanisms control ventilation and perfusion?
Both are controlled by local autoregulatory mechanisms.
p.31
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What lobes are present in the right lung?
The right lung has the superior lobe, middle lobe, and inferior lobe.
p.24
Normal Pulmonary Function in Relation with Respiratory Pathologies (1)
What is one major function of the respiratory system?
To supply the body with oxygen for cellular respiration and dispose of carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular respiration.
p.39
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What is the function of alveolar pores?
They connect adjacent alveoli to equalize air pressure throughout the lung and provide alternate routes in case of blockages.
p.3
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Pathological Significance
What is the pathological significance of the Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT)?
The pathological significance of EMT includes its involvement in cancer metastasis, fibrosis, and other diseases.
p.3
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Molecular Factors Involved
What are the important factors involved in the Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT)?
Important factors include growth factors, cytokines, and transcription factors that regulate the transition process.
p.31
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What do segmental bronchi branch into?
Segmental bronchi branch into smaller bronchioles.
p.19
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Pathological Significance
What are the two potential fates of cells undergoing EMT?
Cells either undergo apoptosis or Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT).
p.6
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Normal (Non - Pathological) Significance
What is the appearance of mesenchymal cells?
Mesenchymal cells have a nonuniform appearance and no topical specialization (without apical/basal polarity).
p.10
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT): Normal (Non - Pathological) Significance
What happens to developing cells during EMT?
Developing cells specialize and differentiate into specific cell types.
p.28
Key Epithelium in the Respiratory Tract
What type of epithelium is found in the mucosa of the trachea?
Ciliated pseudostratified epithelium with goblet cells.
p.33
Anatomical Organization of the Respiratory
What is the presence of smooth muscle in the respiratory bronchioles?
Smooth muscle is present (++)
