p.22
Political Consequences of Masculinity
What did the idealized male body symbolize in society?
A reflection of the need for both dynamism and order.
p.14
Fascism and Masculinity
How did Mussolini's interpretation of Nietzsche differ from Hitler's?
Mussolini's Nietzsche was not influenced by racism and emphasized ideals different from the older generation, while Hitler's version was adjusted to fit traditional nationalist and racist ideas.
p.5
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What does the section 'SETTING THE STANDARD' discuss?
It likely outlines the benchmarks for traditional masculinity.
p.5
Fascism and Masculinity
What does 'THE NEW FASCIST MAN' section explore?
It examines the characteristics and implications of a new form of masculinity associated with fascism.
p.14
Fascism and Masculinity
What role did sacrifice and salvation play in the formation of the new order of men?
They contributed to the ideals and goals of the fascist new man.
p.20
Fascism and Masculinity
What was the Nazi work-study fellowship's goal for students?
To train them to become Greek ideal types.
p.12
Crisis of Masculinity in Modern Society
What role did women play in the fascist ideology regarding strength?
Women were expected to be strong and vigorous to become better wives and mothers.
p.14
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What was the Littorio in the context of Italian fascism?
It was the Roman insignia of public office, symbolizing ties to ancient Rome.
p.21
Crisis of Masculinity in Modern Society
What virtues are associated with a man who has steeled his body?
Loyalty, honesty, comradeship, obedience, discipline, and courage.
p.12
Cultural Representations of Manhood
How were men's bodies perceived in fascist ideology?
Men's bodies were seen as fascist symbols, often depicted in well-sculptured nudity.
p.3
History of Masculine Stereotypes
What is the main focus of the book?
The history of the masculine stereotype and its political consequences.
p.14
Fascism and Masculinity
What was a principal attribute of the fascist 'new man' according to Mussolini?
Willingness to act, driven by a quasi Nietzschean vision.
p.5
Contradictions in Masculine Ideals
What is the purpose of the section 'TOWARD A NEW MASCULINITY?'?
It discusses potential shifts and developments in masculine identity.
p.16
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What was the purpose of the satirical newspaper Kladderadatsch in 1933?
To comment on Hitler's vision of creating a new German identity.
p.2
History of Masculine Stereotypes
What are the main psychological themes explored in 'The Image of Man'?
Masculinity, stereotypes, and men's psychology.
p.3
History of Masculine Stereotypes
What role did Dawn Barclift play in the writing of the book?
She conducted research that enriched much of the book.
p.13
Cultural Representations of Manhood
How did fascism in Italy utilize body language differently than in Germany?
Fascism in Italy emphasized body language as a means of communication, contrasting with Germany's focus on looks and comportment.
p.19
Cultural Representations of Manhood
How was Mussolini's public image carefully managed?
No news of his birthdays or illnesses was allowed, preserving his image as a strong leader.
p.19
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What did the burning lights in Mussolini's office symbolize?
Attention to duty, youthful vigor, and stamina.
p.18
Crisis of Masculinity in Modern Society
What tension is described in the context of fascism?
The tension between family life and the Mannerbund, resolved by subordinating women and children to male dominance.
p.24
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What did the nude body symbolize in Nazi ideology?
True beauty and a healthy world before modernity.
p.10
Camaraderie and Male Bonding
What was the perception of camaraderie in the context of the Fascist Party?
It was thought to embrace the whole nation but focused on the Party and its formations.
p.8
Fascism and Masculinity
How does the concept of the new man reflect contradictions in the Futurist ideology?
Although he is seen as an autonomous person, he is also disciplined and limited in freedom by his service to Italy.
p.15
Political Consequences of Masculinity
What are the two contrasting views of Mussolini as described by Gioacchino Volpe?
One who does not love the masses and sympathizes with the individual, and another who believes discipline is necessary for integrating the individual into the nation.
p.12
Contradictions in Masculine Ideals
How did the emphasis on physical exercise differ between Italy and Germany?
Italy focused on discipline and proper comportment, while Germany emphasized the symbolic importance of the beautiful body.
p.11
Fascism and Masculinity
What was the centerpiece of the fascist and Nazi political liturgy?
The cult of the war dead and fascist or Nazi martyrs.
p.25
Contradictions in Masculine Ideals
What tension existed in the representation of male beauty in Nazi symbolism?
The conflict between admiration for masculine beauty and the settled bourgeois society's respectability.
p.18
Cultural Representations of Manhood
How was heroism perceived differently for men and women in fascism?
For men, heroism was active; for women, it was passive, often as victims or martyrs.
p.8
Fascism and Masculinity
What was the relationship between war and the concept of the new man in Italian nationalism?
Papini and Corradini believed that war and a spiritual revolution would complete the process of Italian unification.
p.5
History of Masculine Stereotypes
What is the focus of the first section titled 'INTRODUCTION: THE MASCULINE STEREOTYPE'?
It introduces the concept of masculine stereotypes.
p.19
Cultural Representations of Manhood
How did Mussolini project the cult of masculinity?
Through images of physical exercise and productive work, symbolizing strength and decisiveness.
p.7
Crisis of Masculinity in Modern Society
What was a key characteristic of the fascist man during the First World War?
Service and sacrifice in a higher cause.
p.14
Fascism and Masculinity
How did the concept of the 'new man' differ between Italian fascism and National Socialism?
The Italian 'new man' was seen as a dynamic presence looking toward the future, while the German 'new man' was deeply rooted in the past.
p.25
Cultural Representations of Manhood
How did Adolf Hitler view Breker's statues?
He considered them among the most beautiful of all German artistic creations.
p.7
Crisis of Masculinity in Modern Society
What did Italian nationalists aim to create in the early 20th century?
A new man to fulfill their dreams for a new Italy.
p.17
Contradictions in Masculine Ideals
What tension is highlighted in the context of masculinity and family life?
The tension between triumphant masculinity and the ideal of family life.
p.12
Crisis of Masculinity in Modern Society
What did Mussolini believe about Italians' posture?
He believed Italians walked as if they were crippled and needed to learn to walk straight.
p.23
Cultural Representations of Manhood
How did Winckelmann attempt to make Greek sculptures acceptable?
By raising naked youths to an abstract plane to minimize their erotic impact.
p.25
Cultural Representations of Manhood
How did the realism of Breker's figures enhance their symbolic value?
Their posture suggested engagement in protection or readiness for battle.
p.23
Physical Fitness and the Male Body
What did Hans Suren advocate in his work regarding physical exercise?
Nearly complete nudity in the pursuit of sport and jogging.
p.25
Cultural Representations of Manhood
Who admired Breker's sculptures during the Paris exhibition?
Vichy France's education minister, Abel Bonnard, and playwright Jean Cocteau.
p.17
Political Consequences of Masculinity
What was the stance of National Socialism on family life?
It was considered the most important cell of the state.
p.9
Racial Ideologies and Masculinity
What was the German ideal of Mannerbund?
A concept invoked by Nazis and Italian fascists to define the state through male camaraderie.
p.16
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What does the term 'new German' refer to in the context of Hitler's ideology?
A vision of an idealized German identity promoted by the Nazi regime.
p.2
History of Masculine Stereotypes
What series is 'The Image of Man' a part of?
Studies in the History of Sexuality.
p.3
History of Masculine Stereotypes
What contributions did Paul Breines and Anson Rabinbach make?
They read and greatly improved the text.
p.3
History of Masculine Stereotypes
What special support did John Tortorice provide?
He created a supportive environment that made writing the book more rewarding.
p.3
History of Masculine Stereotypes
Which chapters of the book had parts published in other works?
Parts of Chapter 5 and Chapter 6.
p.6
Political Consequences of Masculinity
How did fascism use the concept of manliness?
As both an ideal and a practical tool to strengthen its political structure.
p.15
Contradictions in Masculine Ideals
What was the constant object of attention for the Fascist Party according to Mussolini?
The creation of a new man.
p.12
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What was Mussolini's stance on depictions of women in athletics?
He ordered the elimination of sketches of excessively thin and masculinized female figures.
p.6
Physical Fitness and the Male Body
What does 'mens sana in corpore sano' signify in the context of fascism?
It reflects the importance of a sound mind in a sound body, emphasizing physical and mental strength.
p.25
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What was the posture of Breker's nude figures?
Arms outstretched and legs apart, suggesting quiet strength.
p.7
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What was the Futurists' view on tradition?
They opposed ideas of immutability and embraced modernity.
p.17
Camaraderie and Male Bonding
Which youth organizations did boys join before entering adult party organizations?
Balilla or the Hitler Youth.
p.13
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What did Giocchino Volpe assert about the fascist man in 1936?
He claimed that the fascist man unites culture, knowledge, and action, emphasizing the dynamic nature of knowledge.
p.24
Racial Ideologies and Masculinity
What role did racism play in the representation of the fascist man?
It gained strength from working with human stereotypes, vindicating Aryan ideals.
p.9
Political Consequences of Masculinity
What did intense nationalism among Italian nationalists emphasize?
Faith in Italy's greatness and destiny, along with revolutionary fervor.
p.12
Camaraderie and Male Bonding
How did sport contribute to camaraderie in both fascist Italy and Nazi Germany?
Sport was praised for reinforcing a manly joy in life derived from true comradeship.
p.21
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What cultural movement in Germany contributed to the idealization of the male body?
The German Youth Movement, which made a cult of the steeled and sculptured male body.
p.18
Racial Ideologies and Masculinity
What did racism demand in terms of the ideal man?
Racism demanded precision and had a defined ideal of the 'Aryan' human form.
p.9
Contradictions in Masculine Ideals
How did fascists view the idealized veteran?
As someone who was not an individualist but part of a squad and community.
p.24
Cultural Representations of Manhood
How did the bronzed body symbolize Aryan beauty?
It became an abstract symbol, losing individual features and sexual appeal.
p.14
Crisis of Masculinity in Modern Society
What was the response of some young Italians to the fascist regime in the 1930s?
They criticized the regime, seeking to return to the original revolutionary impetus of fascism.
p.13
Physical Fitness and the Male Body
What was the significance of physical exercise in fascist ideology?
Physical exercise was seen as essential for building character and was linked to the notion of a manly spirit.
p.24
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What did Breker claim about his sculptures after the Third Reich?
He asserted he wanted to praise the beauty of the human body, not glorify Nazi rule.
p.15
War and the Ideal of Manliness
What qualities were emphasized for the 'citizen soldier' in fascism?
Faith, discipline, willpower, and courage.
p.20
Racial Ideologies and Masculinity
What characteristics were idealized in the Nordic race according to Nazi views?
Tall, lean, with broad shoulders and small hips.
p.23
Contradictions in Masculine Ideals
What concern arose from emphasizing the beauty of the male body?
It could lead to homoeroticism, transforming ideal men into unmanly men.
p.10
Camaraderie and Male Bonding
How was camaraderie supposed to be characterized in the Fascist context?
It was supposed to be voluntary, not enforced like in the trenches.
p.8
Fascism and Masculinity
Who was Giovanni Papini and what did he contribute to the idea of the new man?
Papini was an important publicist who emphasized the ideal of manliness in his collection of essays titled 'Maschilitd'.
p.15
Crisis of Masculinity in Modern Society
How did Italian fascism differ from Nazi ideology regarding individualism?
Italian fascism trusted in the new fascist man, while Nazis focused on the masses and rejected individualism.
p.12
Camaraderie and Male Bonding
What was considered vital in the context of physical exercise in fascist Italy?
It was vital for instilling discipline, order, and camaraderie among men.
p.21
Racial Ideologies and Masculinity
What was the connection between the Aryan race and Greek civilization according to Nazi theorists?
They believed the Aryan race had taken the best of Greek civilization during their migration from India to Europe.
p.17
Political Consequences of Masculinity
How did the rivalry between family life and party organizations manifest in Germany?
Through the dilemma faced by Nazi storm troopers between family life and street fighting.
p.17
Political Consequences of Masculinity
What did a member of the S.A. express regarding family loyalty?
He stated that the family does not concern them, as their loyalty belongs to the party.
p.11
Fascism and Masculinity
What did Achille Starace advocate for during his time in the Fascist Party?
Purity crusades and greater austerity.
p.1
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What is the title of George L. Mosse's work?
The Image of Man: The Creation of Modern Masculinity.
p.5
Crisis of Masculinity in Modern Society
What is the theme of the section 'MASCULINITY IN CRISIS: THE DECADENCE'?
It addresses the challenges and decline of traditional masculinity.
p.24
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What physical characteristics were emphasized for the ideal fascist man?
Hairless, smooth, and bronzed skin.
p.6
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What movements influenced the fascist ideal of masculinity?
The German Youth Movement and the Italian Futurists, among others.
p.24
Cultural Representations of Manhood
Who was Arno Breker?
The semiofficial sculptor of the Third Reich, known for his sculptures of idealized male forms.
p.6
Contradictions in Masculine Ideals
What was central to the fascist concept of masculinity?
Devotion to a higher cause.
p.10
Fascism and Masculinity
What was the role of athletic men in the Fascist Party according to the postcard?
They were lifted on high by the Party, symbolizing strength and camaraderie.
p.8
Fascism and Masculinity
What qualities should the new fascist man possess according to the Futurists?
He should be a disciple of the engine, an enemy of books, and a believer in personal experience and Italy's power and glory.
p.15
Contradictions in Masculine Ideals
How did Mussolini's ideas about the new man reflect contradictions?
They were both authoritarian and populist, activist yet contemplative, dynamic and realistic, nationalist and Western.
p.18
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What imagery was used in the S.S. calendar cover of 1936?
The father dominates the family, with the wife and child depicted below him.
p.11
Fascism and Masculinity
What became a defining moment for the fascist or National Socialist man after the war?
The ability to face death without flinching.
p.10
Crisis of Masculinity in Modern Society
What was required to join the elite formations of the Fascist Party?
Willpower, legitimizing the importance of the human will in constructing the new man.
p.8
Fascism and Masculinity
What characteristics did Papini attribute to men and women?
Men are described as forceful, energetic, hard, and proud, while women are seen as weak, flabby, bland, and tearful.
p.17
Crisis of Masculinity in Modern Society
What did Critica Fascista claim about exercising the male body?
It demolishes the limited aspirations of bourgeois family life.
p.25
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What was the significance of Breker's exhibition in Paris during the German occupation?
It attracted significant attention and mingled French visitors with Germans in uniform.
p.18
Racial Ideologies and Masculinity
What was a key difference between Italian fascism and National Socialism?
National Socialism was a racist regime, while Italian fascism was not during its early years.
p.9
War and the Ideal of Manliness
How did the experience of war influence the concept of the new fascist man?
Veterans were seen as true heroes who understood sacrifice and vitality.
p.11
Fascism and Masculinity
What symbolized the fascist era in terms of physical representation?
A nude youth with a beautiful Greek body.
p.3
History of Masculine Stereotypes
Which libraries were mentioned as significant resources for the author?
The British Library, Wiener Library, Hebrew National and University Library, University of Wisconsin libraries, Staatsbibliothek, Cambridge University Library, and Olin Library at Cornell University.
p.22
Contradictions in Masculine Ideals
How did the ideal of beauty function for many men and women?
As an addition to, or a virtual substitute for, established religion.
p.19
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What does the frequent use of the word 'virility' in fascist writings signify?
It serves as proof of the writer's fascist credentials.
p.7
Crisis of Masculinity in Modern Society
How did Emilio Gentile describe the new Italian fascist man?
As a warrior-crusader in the service of a faith.
p.21
Crisis of Masculinity in Modern Society
What does the Socialist publication suggest about sport and the male body?
It sees sport as the steeling of the body and the fulfillment of a worldview.
p.13
Crisis of Masculinity in Modern Society
How did fascism view the relationship between physical strength and willpower?
Fascism believed that physical strength and discipline were useless without strength of will, which was essential for service and sacrifice.
p.14
Political Consequences of Masculinity
What event might have been influenced by the frustrations of young fascist intellectuals?
The start of the Ethiopian war in 1935.
p.19
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What aspect of family life was emphasized in Mussolini's image?
His exemplary masculinity was highlighted, while his role as a family man was downplayed.
p.20
Racial Ideologies and Masculinity
What was the relationship between racism and familiar ideas of beauty?
Racism co-opted familiar ideas of beauty and ugliness, locking them into place.
p.21
Fascism and Masculinity
What role did the male body play in Nazi ideology?
It symbolized Germany's renewal and strength, countering the perceived moral decay of the Weimar Republic.
p.20
Crisis of Masculinity in Modern Society
How did fascism view physical exercise in relation to masculinity?
As essential for sculpting the ideal male body and character training.
p.21
Cultural Representations of Manhood
How did the Nazis utilize the idealized nude male body?
They used it as a central political symbol, often inspired by Greek ideals.
p.15
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What was the Nazi approach to creating a new man compared to Italian fascism?
Nazis had a strict plan for the racial state, while Italian fascism left the future to the new fascist man without detailed plans.
p.20
Contradictions in Masculine Ideals
What stereotype did the Nazi ideal of manliness resemble?
The normative male stereotype, similar to the 'clean-cut Englishman.'
p.12
Political Consequences of Masculinity
What was the foundation of the state according to fascism and National Socialism?
The ideal of male comradeship.
p.25
Racial Ideologies and Masculinity
What underlying conflict was present in Nazi symbolism regarding the male body?
The conflict between abstract ideals and the realities of racism.
p.17
Crisis of Masculinity in Modern Society
What does fascism represent in terms of masculinity?
The fullest expression of modern masculinity.
p.6
Political Consequences of Masculinity
How did fascism elevate masculinity?
It placed great hopes on manliness as a national symbol and a living example.
p.6
War and the Ideal of Manliness
What role did the Great War play in the fascist ideal of manliness?
Fascism considered itself the true inheritor of the war experience, shaping its concept of masculinity.
p.24
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What was the significance of nude athlete statues in Nazi ideology?
They combined the ideal of beauty with a life force symbolizing a powerful Volk.
p.20
Fascism and Masculinity
What did National Socialism prioritize in terms of male appearance?
Manly beauty and details of male comportment.
p.23
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What was considered beautiful in classical representations of masculinity?
The sculpted male body, particularly in the nude.
p.19
Cultural Representations of Manhood
How did Hitler's public image differ from Mussolini's?
Hitler was rarely shown in action and was more of a removed religious symbol.
p.18
Crisis of Masculinity in Modern Society
How did fascism view the role of men in relation to family?
Men were seen as activists with a dynamic that could not easily be confined to the home.
p.21
Political Consequences of Masculinity
How did the Nazis transform the concept of sacrifice?
They turned it into an absolute principle, stating that a man's body belongs to his people.
p.13
Political Consequences of Masculinity
How did fascism differentiate the new man from the bourgeois?
The fascist man was characterized by action and discipline, contrasting with the bourgeois, who was associated with passivity and cynicism.
p.24
Cultural Representations of Manhood
How did Breker's sculptures reflect Aryan stereotypes?
They depicted a realistic ideal of masculinity based on live models.
p.9
Fascism and Masculinity
How were Italian nationalists aligned with the Futurists?
They shared ideas that influenced Italian fascism's concept of masculinity.
p.18
Contradictions in Masculine Ideals
What did fascism define as true manliness?
Manliness was defined by heroism and the readiness for sacrifice, transcending ordinary life.
p.11
Fascism and Masculinity
What did Mussolini's new man embody?
The inspiration from war experience and a state of permanent war.
p.15
Racial Ideologies and Masculinity
What did the Nazis believe about the true German in relation to the past?
The true German was meant to execute a set plan that grew organically out of the nation's past.
p.9
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What characteristics defined the new man of fascism?
Discipline, self-control, and patriotic fervor.
p.8
Fascism and Masculinity
What influence did Papini's concept of the new man have on Italian fascism?
The new man described by Papini influenced the ideals of Italian fascism, particularly under Mussolini's leadership.
p.11
Fascism and Masculinity
What was the Forum Mussolini and its significance?
The main sports stadium in Rome, surrounded by sculptures of nude athletes, symbolizing the fascist ideal.
p.13
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What role did Mussolini's body language play in fascist communication?
Mussolini used his malleable body and theatrical gestures to communicate willpower and connect with the masses.
p.25
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What did the figures created by Breker symbolize in the Third Reich?
Heroic will and readiness to sacrifice.
p.20
Racial Ideologies and Masculinity
How did racism influence perceptions of male beauty in Nazi ideology?
It made the appearance and structure of the body symbolic of a man's inner worth.
p.23
Crisis of Masculinity in Modern Society
What tension did National Socialism face regarding the male body?
Reconciling nudity with the respectability important for political success.
p.13
Contradictions in Masculine Ideals
What stereotype did fascist masculinity reflect?
Fascist masculinity symbolized a dynamic yet restful male stereotype, emphasizing warrior elements and self-restraint.
p.24
Cultural Representations of Manhood
Who was Gustav Stuhrk?
An athlete and decathlon champion who served as Breker's favorite model.
p.18
Political Consequences of Masculinity
How did fascism relate to the Great War?
Fascism saw itself as the inheritor of the Great War, co-opting its heroes.
p.23
Political Consequences of Masculinity
What was the Nazi stance on public nudity?
They discouraged public displays of nudity in non-symbolic representation.
p.10
Fascism and Masculinity
Who was considered the ideal former combatant in the Fascist ideology?
A combatant imbued with the proper spirit.
p.7
Crisis of Masculinity in Modern Society
What did the Futurists believe about the new man's relationship with history?
He should not be tied to the weight of past history.
p.11
Fascism and Masculinity
What was the enemy that Mussolini's new man fought against?
The menace of degeneration within the nation.
p.8
Fascism and Masculinity
How did Papini's view of nationalism differ from traditional German nationalism?
Papini's Nietzschean nationalism was aggressive and nontraditional, unlike the more subdued German nationalism that used Nietzsche without fully embracing his ideas.
p.17
Crisis of Masculinity in Modern Society
What preference did a character in the Nazi film Kolberg express?
He preferred the masculine world of fighting over settled family life.
p.11
Fascism and Masculinity
What was the prototype of the new man in Italian fascism?
A member of the Italian fascist squadrista, representing the ability to face death without flinching.
p.25
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What was the intended purpose of Breker's sculptures for Berlin?
They were destined for monumental buildings planned for the rebuilding of Berlin after the war.
p.7
Contradictions in Masculine Ideals
What qualities did the new man, according to Futurism, embody?
Discipline, energy, and a love of combat and confrontation.
p.17
Contradictions in Masculine Ideals
What did Italian popular literature extol despite the activism of fascism?
The poetry of the hearth and tranquility of family life.
p.20
Fascism and Masculinity
What was the emphasis of National Socialism regarding the human body?
It viewed the human body as representative of the proper spirit.
p.8
Fascism and Masculinity
What does Papini suggest men must do to achieve true manliness?
Men must free themselves from bourgeois icons like family and schools, and embrace a more brutal, barbaric existence.
p.11
Fascism and Masculinity
What were the key characteristics emphasized in the new fascist man?
Camaraderie, discipline, fitness, and a high moral tone.
p.9
Camaraderie and Male Bonding
What role did camaraderie play in fascist ideology?
It was considered the foundation of society and the state.
p.21
Cultural Representations of Manhood
What was the significance of Walter Flex's book 'Der Wanderer zwischen beiden Welten'?
It presented a hero from the German Youth Movement in the nude, emphasizing the beauty of the male form.
p.11
Fascism and Masculinity
How did fascism view the human body?
As a central focus, emphasizing the cultivation of the body as a hallmark of modern masculinity.
