p.64
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What are the meninges?
Several layers that protect the brain and spinal cord.
p.84
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
What are the beneficial aspects of transient, low levels of neuroinflammation?
They can aid in repair after injury.
p.77
Regeneration in the Peripheral Nervous System
What role do Schwann cells play in axon regeneration?
They dedifferentiate, proliferate, form tubes, and release substances to guide re-growing axons.
p.38
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What are the criteria for diagnosing CTE?
Evidence of neuronal degeneration and an abnormal pattern of the microtubule-associated protein, Tau.
p.20
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
What is a synapse?
A site of communication between the axon and the next cell.
p.78
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What happens to neurons in the CNS when they die?
They are gone because few neurons undergo mitosis.
p.50
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What is typically the antigen in Multiple Sclerosis?
One of the myelin-associated proteins.
p.6
Role of Primary Cilia in Neurons
What role do specific proteins in neuronal cilia play?
They can contribute to obesity.
p.63
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What is the primary function of the meninges?
To provide protection for the brain and spinal cord.
p.36
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What are plaques in Alzheimer's disease primarily made of?
Pieces of the protein Beta-amyloid that clump together.
p.61
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What is notable about the number of satellite cells in autonomic ganglia?
They are fewer in number.
p.43
Structure and Function of Neurons
What is the primary function of a Schwann cell?
To myelinate a short portion of an axon (up to 0.1 mm).
p.78
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
Why is there limited regeneration in the CNS?
Due to differences in both glia and axonal response.
p.69
Structure and Function of Neurons
What does 'M' stand for in the context of peripheral nerves?
Myelin (space showing granularity).
p.81
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What is Wallerian degeneration?
A process that occurs when a nerve fiber is cut or crushed, leading to the degeneration of the part of the axon distal to the injury.
p.12
Dendritic Structure and Function
What elements are important in dendritic spines?
Cytoskeletal elements and synaptic receptors.
p.33
Functions of the Nervous System
What is the first step in the stretch reflex?
Extension of muscle sensed by receptors in the thigh.
p.77
Regeneration in the Peripheral Nervous System
What happens to injured axons in the PNS?
Sprouts appear from the end of the injured axons.
p.44
Structure and Function of Neurons
What type of axons are found in the PNS?
Both myelinated and unmyelinated axons.
p.67
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What is the connective tissue that is continuous with the dura mater in the PNS?
Epineurium (dense irregular connective tissue).
p.63
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What are the meninges?
Connective tissue coverings that protect the brain and spinal cord.
p.36
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What is one effect of plaques in Alzheimer's disease?
They block other processes.
p.31
Structure and Function of Neurons
What is a ganglion in the peripheral nervous system?
A region with neuronal soma, dendrites, and some axons.
p.68
Structure and Function of Neurons
What happens to myelin during processing of peripheral nerves?
Myelin is removed, revealing spaces.
p.81
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
How does regeneration in the PNS differ from the CNS?
In the PNS, regeneration is more effective due to the presence of Schwann cells, which promote axonal growth, while in the CNS, regeneration is limited due to inhibitory factors and the absence of supportive cells.
p.85
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
Which neuropsychiatric diseases are associated with neuroinflammation?
Schizophrenia, Autism, and Depression.
p.33
Functions of the Nervous System
What initiates the contraction of the flexor muscles in the stretch reflex?
Action potential at the neuromuscular junction.
p.35
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What is the ultimate effect of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease?
They kill neurons in specific places.
p.83
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
What role do other glial cell types play in neuroinflammation?
They contribute alongside microglia.
p.76
Degeneration in the PNS
What is Wallerian degeneration?
A process that occurs after an axon is damaged, leading to degeneration of the axon distal to the injury.
p.17
Axonal Transport Mechanisms
How can axonal transport be clinically significant?
It can be hijacked to transport substances into the CNS that shouldn't be transported.
p.42
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What is the first step in Schwann cell myelination?
The axon invaginates into the Schwann cell.
p.7
Structure and Function of Neurons
What is the function of dendrites?
Carry information TOWARDS the soma.
p.31
Structure and Function of Neurons
What is an example of a ganglion?
Dorsal Root Ganglion (DRG).
p.18
Structure and Function of Neurons
What are the main components of the cytoskeleton in both axons and dendrites?
Microtubules and microfilaments.
p.26
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
How many neurons innervate each muscle fiber?
Each muscle fiber is innervated by 1 neuron.
p.11
Dendritic Structure and Function
Can proteins be synthesized in dendrites?
Yes, proteins can be synthesized in dendrites.
p.80
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What is a key reason for regeneration failure in the CNS?
Failure of oligodendrocytes to remove degenerating myelin.
p.84
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
What role does neuroinflammation play after an injury?
It is involved in the repair process.
p.66
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What is the role of the epineurium?
It surrounds the whole nerve and the spaces between fascicles.
p.55
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
Where are astrocytes found?
In the central nervous system (CNS).
p.50
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
Where do the lesions in Multiple Sclerosis typically radiate from?
From the ventricles (periventricular).
p.40
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What are supporting cells in the nervous system primarily classified as?
Glial cells or neuroglia.
p.40
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What types of glial cells are found in the Central Nervous System (CNS)?
Oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and microglia.
p.12
Dendritic Structure and Function
How do dendritic spines vary?
They come in different shapes.
p.62
Types of Neurons and Their Functions
What type of neurons are found in dorsal root ganglia?
Sensory neurons that transmit sensory information to the central nervous system.
p.40
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What is the role of ependymal cells?
Ependymal cells line the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord, but their importance is sometimes questioned.
p.79
Axonal Transport Mechanisms
What happens to microtubules if the neuron survives after injury?
They can fail to assemble in a linear manner.
p.12
Dendritic Structure and Function
How do the shapes of dendritic spines change?
They change over development.
p.52
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
Why are microglia important in the CNS?
Because the CNS is protected from the immune system.
p.37
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What is the effect of neurofibrillary tangles on axonal transport?
They block axonal transport.
p.52
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
What is the role of microglia in neuroinflammation?
They are part of the neuroinflammatory response.
p.79
Axonal Transport Mechanisms
What is a key factor in the failure of axonal regeneration?
Failure of molecules that guide the axon.
p.58
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What is one function of satellite cells?
To maintain the environment around the neuron.
p.25
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
Are all synapses located on spines?
No, not all synapses are on spines.
p.45
Axonal Transport Mechanisms
Where is the action potential initiated in a neuron?
At the initial segment of the axon.
p.73
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
What is a hallmark of the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS)?
Breakdown of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and increased immune cell trafficking into the CNS.
p.54
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What is the appearance of microglia at the most severe part of an injury?
They become ameboid and phagocytose debris.
p.75
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
In which system is Wallerian degeneration better observed?
In the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
p.75
Structure and Function of Neurons
What are the two portions of an axon involved in Wallerian degeneration?
Proximal portion (near soma) and distal portion (below injury).
p.47
Axonal Transport Mechanisms
Why do we have unmyelinated axons?
To allow some signals to be slow and sustained rather than fast and transient.
p.80
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What type of inhibitory molecules are increased due to glial scar formation?
Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan.
p.76
Regeneration in the PNS
What occurs in a normal PNS condition?
The axon contacts muscle or another cell type.
p.53
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
Why are microglia important during development?
They play a crucial role in the development of the nervous system.
p.26
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
What is the neuromuscular junction?
The connection between the axon of a motor neuron and a muscle cell.
p.52
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What are microglia?
Tiny cells found in the central nervous system (CNS).
p.43
Structure and Function of Neurons
What happens to the axon between the Nodes of Ranvier?
It is otherwise isolated.
p.39
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What are neurodegenerative disorders characterized by?
Numerous different characteristics.
p.10
Dendritic Structure and Function
What does dendritic tree variability refer to?
The amazing range of variability in the structure of dendritic trees among different types of neurons.
p.71
Structure and Function of Neurons
What primarily forms the blood-brain barrier?
Complex tight junctions (TJ) between endothelial cells of capillaries.
p.65
Structure and Function of Neurons
What is the dura mater?
The thick outer layer of the spinal cord meninges.
p.18
Structure and Function of Neurons
How is the cytoskeleton organized in dendrites compared to axons?
The cytoskeleton in dendrites is less organized and more associated with branching.
p.10
Dendritic Structure and Function
What is a characteristic feature of each type of neuron?
Each type of neuron has its own characteristic dendritic tree.
p.62
Structure and Function of Neurons
What is the location of dorsal root ganglia?
Adjacent to the spinal cord, along the dorsal roots of spinal nerves.
p.10
Dendritic Structure and Function
How does the number of branches in a dendritic tree affect a neuron?
More branches mean more opportunity for input.
p.45
Axonal Transport Mechanisms
What is the primary function of myelinated axons?
To facilitate faster communication of action potentials between neurons.
p.11
Dendritic Structure and Function
What organelles are mostly found in dendrites?
Mitochondria and rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER).
p.51
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What type of disease is Guillain-Barre Syndrome?
A demyelinating disease in the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
p.21
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
Are there neurons with more than 7000 synapses?
Yes, some neurons have considerably higher synapse counts.
p.35
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What are the characteristic features of Alzheimer's disease?
The presence of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles.
p.66
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What is the function of the endoneurium in the PNS?
It surrounds individual axons.
p.66
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What does the perineurium encase?
Bundles of axons, known as fascicles.
p.7
Structure and Function of Neurons
What do axons do?
Carry information AWAY from the soma.
p.12
Dendritic Structure and Function
What are dendritic spines?
Protrusions that serve as sites of contact for synaptic communication.
p.71
Functions of the Nervous System
What is the blood-brain barrier?
A theoretical barrier that selectively lets certain substances through while blocking others.
p.20
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
What types of cells can communicate at a synapse?
Another neuron or another type of cell, such as muscle or blood vessel.
p.43
Structure and Function of Neurons
What is the initial segment of the axon?
The part of the axon that is myelinated by Schwann cells.
p.31
Structure and Function of Neurons
What constitutes a nerve in the peripheral nervous system?
Regions with only axons and their glial cells, without soma or dendrites.
p.62
Structure and Function of Neurons
Where are autonomic ganglia located?
Near or within the organs they innervate.
p.8
Dendritic Structure and Function
What is the primary function of dendrites?
To carry information towards the soma.
p.79
Axonal Transport Mechanisms
What underlies the formation of retraction bulbs in axonal regeneration?
Disorganized microtubules.
p.41
Structure and Function of Neurons
What is the primary function of Schwann cells?
To myelinate axons in the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
p.8
Dendritic Structure and Function
Why are branches important in the physiology of the neuron?
They allow maximum area to contact inputs.
p.48
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What are oligodendrocytes?
Cells that provide myelin in the CNS.
p.23
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
What initiates the sequence of communication at a synapse?
An action potential coming down the axon.
p.3
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What is the clinical implication of the highly metabolic state of neurons?
Neurons are highly sensitive to deprivation.
p.84
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
What are the detrimental effects of high levels or chronic neuroinflammation?
They can have harmful effects on the nervous system.
p.77
Regeneration in the Peripheral Nervous System
What is the final outcome of axon regeneration in the PNS?
Axons regrow and reach target cells again.
p.69
Structure and Function of Neurons
What does 'A' represent in the organization of peripheral nerves?
Axon (pink thread-like structure).
p.74
Nerve Regeneration in the PNS
What happens if an axon in the PNS is damaged but the cell body remains intact?
Recovery can occur proximal to the site of injury while the distal part degenerates and then regenerates.
p.46
Axonal Transport Mechanisms
What is the primary function of myelinated axons?
To increase the speed of conduction up to 30 times.
p.42
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What happens after the axon invaginates into the Schwann cell?
The Schwann cell membrane wraps concentrically around the axon.
p.46
Axonal Transport Mechanisms
What factors influence the speed of conduction in myelinated axons?
The diameter of the axon and the thickness of the myelin.
p.55
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
How do astrocytes interact with neurons?
They communicate with neurons.
p.37
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What are neurofibrillary tangles?
They occur when microtubules are disrupted in Alzheimer's disease.
p.72
Functions of the Nervous System
What gases can penetrate the blood-brain barrier?
Oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
p.74
Nerve Regeneration in the PNS
What occurs to the distal part of a damaged axon in the PNS?
It degenerates and then regenerates.
p.28
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
What is the function of excitatory neurotransmitters?
They facilitate the firing of an action potential in the connected cell.
p.72
Functions of the Nervous System
Which substances are transported across the blood-brain barrier by carrier proteins?
Glucose, amino acids (aa), and vitamins.
p.28
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
What do inhibitory neurotransmitters do?
They prevent the firing of an action potential in the connected cell.
p.9
Dendritic Structure and Function
What are dendritic branches classified based on?
Their origin and structure.
p.8
Dendritic Structure and Function
How does the dendritic tree typically relate to the soma?
It typically stays close to the soma.
p.62
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
How do autonomic ganglia differ from dorsal root ganglia in terms of function?
Autonomic ganglia control involuntary functions, while dorsal root ganglia process sensory information.
p.58
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
How do satellite cells contribute to neuronal health?
By providing electrical insulation.
p.29
Types of Neurons and Their Functions
What type of neuron is responsible for processing information in the CNS?
Multipolar neurons (Integrative function).
p.51
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What is thought to be the cause of Guillain-Barre Syndrome?
It is believed to be an autoimmune disease that attacks myelin.
p.33
Functions of the Nervous System
How do sensory neurons contribute to the reflex arc?
They transmit information to motor neurons in the ventral horn of the spinal cord through synaptic connections.
p.83
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
What morphological change occurs in microglia during neuroinflammation?
They can change to an amoeboid shape.
p.61
Structure and Function of Neurons
How do nerve fibers behave in autonomic ganglia?
They do not tend to form bundles.
p.38
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What causes Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)?
Repeated blows to the head.
p.57
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What are reactive astrocytes?
Astrocytes that respond following injury or in disease states.
p.20
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
Where are synapses found?
At the distal end of the axon.
p.74
Nerve Regeneration in the PNS
What is the approximate rate of nerve regeneration in the PNS?
Approximately 1 inch per month.
p.17
Axonal Transport Mechanisms
What was the initial belief about how West Nile Virus enters the CNS?
It was originally thought to work the same way as rabies virus.
p.81
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What role do Schwann cells play in the PNS?
They support the regeneration of damaged axons by forming a regeneration tube and secreting growth factors.
p.70
Axonal Transport Mechanisms
What are the Nodes of Ranvier?
Gaps in the myelin sheath that allow for saltatory conduction.
p.55
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What specific intermediate filament protein is associated with astrocytes?
Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP).
p.70
Axonal Transport Mechanisms
What is the significance of the Nodes of Ranvier in neuronal function?
They facilitate faster nerve impulse conduction through saltatory conduction.
p.64
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What is the function of the arachnoid layer?
It has projections (trabeculae) that extend inward.
p.70
Structure and Function of Neurons
What does the white space at the Nodes of Ranvier indicate?
The absence of myelin due to processing.
p.62
Types of Neurons and Their Functions
What type of neurons are primarily found in autonomic ganglia?
Postganglionic neurons that innervate target organs.
p.72
Functions of the Nervous System
Are drugs able to cross the blood-brain barrier?
Many drugs are blocked by the barrier.
p.65
Structure and Function of Neurons
What characterizes the pia mater?
It is the delicate inner-most membrane resting on the surface of the spinal cord.
p.32
Structure and Function of Neurons
What is the composition of gray matter in the spinal cord?
It is based on neurons, not glia.
p.30
Structure and Function of Neurons
Where is white matter located in the brain and spinal cord?
Inside the brain and outside in the spinal cord.
p.15
Axonal Transport Mechanisms
What types of cargo are transported in anterograde transport?
Proteins, synaptic vesicles, and organelles (like mitochondria).
p.22
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
What is the synaptic cleft?
The space where neurotransmitters diffuse across.
p.45
Axonal Transport Mechanisms
How is an action potential defined?
As a change in electrical potential caused by ions moving across the membrane.
p.34
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What is the appearance of Lewy bodies?
Typically eosinophilic with a pale halo.
p.54
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
How do microglia affect the vascular system during severe injury?
They can make it permeable to recruit new immune cells.
p.73
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
How do myelin-reactive T cells breach the blood-brain barrier?
With the help of upregulated cell adhesion molecules and MMPs.
p.45
Axonal Transport Mechanisms
Why can't action potentials cross myelin?
Because myelin acts as an insulator, preventing the flow of ions.
p.75
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What happens to the distal axon during Wallerian degeneration?
It breaks up into short segments.
p.23
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What is an SSRI?
A selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, a class of antidepressants.
p.78
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
How does regeneration in the CNS compare to the PNS?
There is little regeneration in the CNS compared to the PNS.
p.50
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What happens to myelin in Multiple Sclerosis?
It is destroyed in focal lesions.
p.68
Structure and Function of Neurons
What is a characteristic feature of Schwann cells in peripheral nerves?
They have a membrane that surrounds the axons.
p.85
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
What diseases are neuroinflammation linked to?
Most neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.
p.55
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What structures can astrocytes contact?
Neuronal soma and myelin.
p.52
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
From what do microglia develop?
From the same precursors as other macrophages.
p.71
Functions of the Nervous System
What does the blood-brain barrier regulate?
The passage from the vascular system to the nervous system.
p.17
Axonal Transport Mechanisms
What do we now understand about the mechanism of West Nile Virus entry into the CNS?
It involves a combination of axonal transport and other mechanisms.
p.37
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What happens to the protein Tau in neurofibrillary tangles?
Tau becomes dissociated from the microtubule and clumps together.
p.70
Structure and Function of Neurons
What is observed in the center of the Nodes of Ranvier?
The axon, represented as a dark line.
p.65
Structure and Function of Neurons
Where is the arachnoid layer located?
Between the red and black lines in the spinal cord meninges.
p.16
Axonal Transport Mechanisms
What is retrograde transport?
Transport towards the soma and away from the synapse at the end of the axon.
p.32
Structure and Function of Neurons
What are the main components of the spinal cord's organization?
Dorsal horn, ventral horn, white matter, and gray matter.
p.62
Functions of the Nervous System
What is the role of sensory neurons in dorsal root ganglia?
To relay sensory information from the periphery to the central nervous system.
p.28
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
How do different types of neurotransmitters vary at the EM level?
They have slightly different synaptic morphologies.
p.41
Structure and Function of Neurons
What is myelin composed of?
Lipid-rich layers formed by concentric layers of Schwann cell plasma membranes.
p.29
Types of Neurons and Their Functions
Where are the cell bodies of motor neurons found?
In the ventral horn of the spinal cord.
p.82
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
What is neuroinflammation?
An inflammatory response in the central nervous system (CNS).
p.5
Role of Primary Cilia in Neurons
What are ciliopathies?
Disorders caused by defects in the structure or function of cilia.
p.1
Functions of the Nervous System
What internal processes does the nervous system control?
The functioning of internal organs.
p.57
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What morphological changes occur in reactive astrocytes?
Increase in size and branch thickness.
p.69
Structure and Function of Neurons
What does 'NF' denote in the context of peripheral nerves?
Nerve fiber, which includes axon and its myelin sheath.
p.42
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What occurs to the Schwann cell cytoplasm and nucleus during myelination?
They are pushed to the edge and remain around the axon.
p.71
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What role do astrocytes play in the blood-brain barrier?
They play a significant role in the functioning of tight junctions of endothelial cells.
p.58
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
Where are satellite cells located?
In the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
p.81
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What happens to the neuronal cell body during Wallerian degeneration?
It undergoes changes such as chromatolysis, which is the breakdown of the cell's Nissl bodies.
p.30
Structure and Function of Neurons
What constitutes gray matter in the CNS?
Regions with neuronal soma, dendrites, and some axons.
p.39
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What causes some neurodegenerative disorders?
Aggregation of abnormal proteins.
p.54
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What is the state of microglia in a quiescent state?
They have thinner, longer processes.
p.65
Structure and Function of Neurons
What does the pia mater do in relation to the spinal cord?
It dips into the fissures (clefts) in the cord.
p.34
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What are Lewy bodies?
Small inclusions within the cytoplasm of neurons.
p.28
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
What distinguishes different types of neurotransmitters?
They use different neurotransmitters.
p.73
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
What happens to precursor T cells in MS?
They become myelin-reactive after interacting with antigen presenting cells displaying myelin-cross-reactive antigens.
p.51
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What happens to myelin in Guillain-Barre Syndrome?
Myelin is destroyed in focal lesions.
p.1
Functions of the Nervous System
What is one primary function of the nervous system?
Allows for rapid response to the environment.
p.27
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
How does Myasthenia Gravis affect muscle function?
It prevents muscle contraction due to impaired transmission at the neuromuscular junction.
p.23
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
What occurs after neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft?
They interact with the next cell.
p.48
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
How does the process of myelination by oligodendrocytes differ from that in the PNS?
It is wrapped in a different fashion.
p.29
Types of Neurons and Their Functions
Where are the cell bodies of autonomic neurons located?
In the lateral horn of the spinal cord.
p.23
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
How do SSRIs like Prozac affect neurotransmitters?
They allow neurotransmitters to stay longer in the synapse.
p.19
Types of Neurons and Their Functions
Where are multipolar neurons primarily found?
All over the central nervous system (CNS).
p.62
Functions of the Nervous System
What is the primary function of autonomic ganglia?
They are involved in the autonomic nervous system, controlling involuntary functions.
p.40
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What types of glial cells are found in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?
Schwann cells and satellite cells in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG).
p.52
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
When do microglia enter the brain?
Very early in brain development.
p.85
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
Is neuroinflammation a cause or a consequence of diseases?
It is still under investigation whether it is a cause or a consequence.
p.25
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
What is an axosomatic synapse?
A synapse where an axon connects to the cell body of another neuron.
p.85
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
What is a potential approach to managing neuroinflammation?
Various treatments are being explored.
p.79
Axonal Transport Mechanisms
What occurs at the end of the axon that prevents growth?
A mass of structures forms due to continued axonal transport.
p.65
Structure and Function of Neurons
What is found in the subarachnoid space?
Dorsal and ventral roots.
p.25
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
What is an axoaxonic synapse?
A synapse where the axon of one neuron connects to the axon of another neuron.
p.16
Axonal Transport Mechanisms
What types of cargo are transported to the soma during retrograde transport?
Proteins, synaptic vesicles, and organelles like mitochondria.
p.64
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
Where is the pia mater located?
Right on the surface of the brain.
p.54
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What happens to microglial processes after CNS injury?
They become shorter and thicker.
p.65
Structure and Function of Neurons
What is the relationship between the arachnoid and subarachnoid space?
The subarachnoid space is located beneath the arachnoid layer and contains dorsal and ventral roots.
p.11
Dendritic Structure and Function
What components make up the cytoskeleton in dendrites?
Actin filaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments.
p.11
Dendritic Structure and Function
What is the role of the cytoskeleton in dendrites?
It maintains shape and branches.
p.32
Structure and Function of Neurons
What is the function of the lateral horn in the spinal cord?
It contains autonomic neurons.
p.1
Functions of the Nervous System
How does the nervous system contribute to perception?
It allows detection of the world around.
p.4
Role of Primary Cilia in Neurons
What is the length characteristic of primary cilia?
Small and variable length.
p.5
Role of Primary Cilia in Neurons
What is the role of primary cilia in neuronal function?
They are involved in signaling pathways that affect neurodevelopment and neuronal health.
p.75
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
Can Wallerian degeneration affect the neuronal soma?
Yes, it can affect the neuronal soma.
p.2
Structure and Function of Neurons
Describe the nucleus of a neuron.
It is large with an obvious nucleolus and mostly euchromatin.
p.74
Nerve Regeneration in the PNS
What factors can influence the speed of nerve regeneration?
Age, health, and other factors.
p.85
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
Is neuroinflammation linked to COVID-19?
Yes, it is being studied in relation to COVID-19.
p.81
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What inhibits regeneration in the CNS?
The presence of myelin-associated inhibitors and the formation of a glial scar.
p.52
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What role do microglia play in the CNS?
They function as resident macrophages.
p.30
Structure and Function of Neurons
What defines regions of the CNS at a gross level?
Regions defined based on neuronal soma, not glia.
p.16
Axonal Transport Mechanisms
What is axonal transport?
A bidirectional process for transporting materials along the axon.
p.18
Structure and Function of Neurons
How is the cytoskeleton arranged in axons?
It is more polarized and arranged in bundles for transport.
p.64
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What does the subarachnoid space contain?
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood vessels.
p.70
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What is the role of the Schwann cell sheath in relation to the Nodes of Ranvier?
It curves around the axon, contributing to the formation of the myelin sheath.
p.28
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
What is the role of modulatory neurotransmitters?
They influence how excitatory and inhibitory signals are integrated.
p.13
Dendritic Structure and Function
What is observed in dendritic spines in Fragile X syndrome?
More spines and a higher number of immature spines.
p.22
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
What is the presynaptic bouton?
The axon terminal that contains neurotransmitters in synaptic vesicles.
p.9
Dendritic Structure and Function
What is the significance of classifying dendritic branches?
It helps in understanding their functions and roles in neural circuits.
p.41
Structure and Function of Neurons
Why is myelin not visible at the light level?
Due to its high fat content, which makes it appear as empty space.
p.14
Structure and Function of Neurons
How many axons does each neuron typically have?
Each neuron has one axon.
p.14
Structure and Function of Neurons
Do axons have branching?
They have little branching until they reach the end, but can have a collateral.
p.23
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
What happens to neurotransmitters after they have interacted with the next cell?
They are recycled to end the communication.
p.73
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
Can the blood-brain barrier be compromised in other neurological diseases?
Yes, it can happen in other neurological diseases.
p.2
Structure and Function of Neurons
What are typical organelles found in the neuron cell body?
Golgi apparatus and mitochondria.
p.59
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What do ependymal cells line within the CNS?
Spaces filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), such as ventricles and the central canal.
p.2
Structure and Function of Neurons
What is the primary function of the rough ER in neurons?
Active in making protein.
p.49
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
How do oligodendrocytes differ from Schwann cells?
Oligodendrocytes can myelinate multiple axons or parts of the same axon, while Schwann cells myelinate only one axon.
p.81
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What is the outcome of Wallerian degeneration in the PNS?
It often leads to successful regeneration of the nerve fiber.
p.6
Role of Primary Cilia in Neurons
What is the significance of MC4R and ADCY3 in the context of obesity?
Their subcellular localization at neuronal primary cilia underlies a common pathway for genetic predisposition to obesity.
p.40
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
Why were supporting cells originally not viewed as important?
They were not considered particularly important for nervous system functioning.
p.71
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What are pericytes' role in the blood-brain barrier?
They also have a significant role in the barrier's functioning.
p.25
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
What is an axodendritic synapse?
A synapse where an axon connects to a dendrite, typical and most common in the CNS.
p.58
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
Where are satellite cells commonly found?
In ganglia, often close to the neuronal soma.
p.30
Structure and Function of Neurons
What constitutes white matter in the CNS?
Regions with only axons and their glial cells (no neuronal soma or dendrites).
p.72
Functions of the Nervous System
Do immune system cells routinely cross the blood-brain barrier?
No, they don’t routinely cross the barrier.
p.9
Dendritic Structure and Function
Why are dendritic branches important?
They play a crucial role in the physiology of neurons.
p.75
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What is Wallerian degeneration?
A process that occurs in both CNS and PNS, characterized by the degeneration of axons after injury.
p.14
Structure and Function of Neurons
What is the primary function of axons?
To carry information away from the soma.
p.48
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
How does the myelin in the CNS compare to that in the PNS?
Morphologically the same, including having Nodes of Ranvier.
p.51
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
Can Guillain-Barre Syndrome cause damage to axons?
Yes, it can cause damage to axons.
p.51
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
Is recovery possible in Guillain-Barre Syndrome?
Yes, recovery is possible, although some recoveries can be long.
p.19
Types of Neurons and Their Functions
How can neurons be classified based on their processes?
By the number and arrangement of their processes.
p.14
Structure and Function of Neurons
What organelles do axons lack?
Most organelles for making proteins.
p.5
Role of Primary Cilia in Neurons
Who are the authors of the study on primary cilia in neurodevelopmental disorders?
Enza Maria Valente, Rasim O. Rosti, Elizabeth Gibbs, and Joseph G. Gleeson.
p.5
Role of Primary Cilia in Neurons
What is the significance of primary cilia in neurodevelopment?
They play a crucial role in the development and functioning of the nervous system.
p.59
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What is the primary function of ependymal cells?
To move cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
p.56
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What was the original thought about astrocytes?
They were considered more of a connective tissue type of cell.
p.56
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
How do astrocytes regulate blood flow?
They help regulate blood flow in the brain.
p.56
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
How do astrocytes affect neurotransmitter concentration?
They regulate the concentration of neurotransmitters, such as glutamate.
p.13
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What is the significance of dendritic spine abnormalities in clinical disorders?
They are associated with various disorders, including Fragile X and Down's syndrome.
p.29
Types of Neurons and Their Functions
Where are the cell bodies of sensory neurons located?
In dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) or specialized sensory organs.
p.23
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
What happens to synaptic vesicles during synaptic communication?
They fuse with the membrane and release neurotransmitters (NT).
p.48
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What structural features do oligodendrocytes retain?
They have a nucleus and cytoplasm on the edge.
p.2
Structure and Function of Neurons
Do most neurons divide?
No, most neurons do not divide except in a few specific places.
p.82
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
What do the neuroimmune system and immune responses in other parts of the body have in common?
They use many of the same pathways.
p.49
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What is a notable feature of many axons in the CNS?
Many axons are unmyelinated.
p.56
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What do astrocytes produce that is beneficial for neurons?
They produce growth factors.
p.27
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What is the consequence of ACh not being able to bind?
The action potential does not get transmitted to the muscle fibers, preventing muscle contraction.
p.54
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
Can microglia proliferate after CNS injury?
Yes, they can proliferate.
p.27
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What is a significant risk associated with Myasthenia Gravis?
It often affects the muscles of respiration, leading to a typically short survival.
p.75
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
What role do macrophages play in Wallerian degeneration?
They come into the area and phagocytose debris.
p.19
Types of Neurons and Their Functions
What is a bipolar neuron?
A neuron with 1 axon and 1 primary dendrite (with many branches), found in sensory neurons in the eye and ear.
p.4
Role of Primary Cilia in Neurons
What is one of the functions of primary cilia?
To monitor the environment.
p.49
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What are oligodendrocytes primarily responsible for?
Myelinating axons in the central nervous system (CNS).
p.49
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What is a key structural feature of oligodendrocytes?
They have multiple processes.
p.56
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
In what way do astrocytes protect neurons?
By assisting in the metabolic processing of various substances.
p.22
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
What is found on the postsynaptic membrane?
Receptors that interact with neurotransmitters.
p.73
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
What do myelin-reactive T cells encounter in the brain?
Myelin antigens presented mainly by microglia.
p.14
Structure and Function of Neurons
How far can axons travel?
They often travel long distances.
p.75
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
How do Schwann cells contribute to Wallerian degeneration?
They assist in the degeneration process, particularly in myelin breakdown.
p.24
Synaptic Communication and Neurotransmitters
Why is the morphology of a synapse not visible with regular microscopy?
It requires electron microscopy (EM) for visibility.
p.49
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What is a characteristic of myelin associated proteins in oligodendrocytes?
They differ from those in Schwann cells.
p.34
Clinical Implications of Neuronal Health
In which diseases are Lewy bodies commonly seen?
Parkinson’s disease and Lewy Body dementia.
p.73
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
What is the result of the inflammatory response incited by myelin-reactive T cells?
Damage or destruction of oligodendrocyte-formed myelin sheaths and underlying neurons.
p.82
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
How is the CNS described in terms of immune response?
The CNS is considered immune-privileged.
p.82
Neuroinflammation and Its Implications
What is the typical presence of immune cells in the CNS under normal circumstances?
Few immune cells are present within the CNS.
p.19
Types of Neurons and Their Functions
What characterizes a pseudounipolar neuron?
It has 1 process with no true dendrite, consisting of 1 axon with branches going to the periphery and CNS, typically sensory to skin and muscle.
p.19
Types of Neurons and Their Functions
What is the structure of a multipolar neuron?
It has 1 axon and multiple primary dendrites, making it the most common type of neuron.
p.4
Role of Primary Cilia in Neurons
What critical roles do primary cilia have?
They can have critical roles in development.
p.14
Structure and Function of Neurons
Can axons perform any protein synthesis?
Yes, some local synthesis can occur.
p.2
Structure and Function of Neurons
What indicates high levels of rough ER in neurons?
Purple spots called Nissl Bodies.
p.59
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What are modified ependymal cells part of?
The choroid plexus that produces cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
p.56
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What role do astrocytes play in the blood-brain barrier?
They contribute to the formation and regulation of the blood-brain barrier.
p.56
Supporting Cells in the Nervous System
What types of homeostasis do astrocytes regulate?
Ionic and water homeostasis, including ions like H+ and K+.
