p.9
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What is the basis of our understanding of electronic structures of atoms?
The studies of the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
p.19
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What is the speed of light in a vacuum compared to other media?
The speed of light is fastest in a vacuum and slower in any medium.
p.118
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
What does a more negative electron affinity indicate?
It indicates a greater tendency to gain an electron.
p.85
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
How are orbitals derived?
Using the mathematical tools of quantum mechanics.
p.86
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is depicted in part (c) of the representations of the 1s orbital?
A reduced scale 3D representation of the 95% contour of a 1s orbital.
p.19
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
How do electromagnetic waves of different wavelengths behave in air and other media?
They have slightly different speeds.
p.93
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does the energy of orbitals in a single electron atom depend on?
The principal quantum number n.
p.32
Atomic Emission Spectra
What is unique about the line spectrum of each element?
Each element has its own distinctive line spectrum.
p.87
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What do s orbitals represent in the hydrogen atom?
Three-dimensional representations of the 95% electron probability density.
p.87
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
How many types of s orbitals are mentioned for the hydrogen atom?
Three types: 1s, 2s, and 3s.
p.9
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What type of radiation is connected with atomic structure?
Electromagnetic radiation.
p.86
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
How is the probability density of the 1s orbital represented in part (a)?
By the height above the xy plane.
p.85
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is an orbital in the context of the hydrogen atom?
A representation of the 3-D volume where an electron is most likely to be found.
p.41
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What does 'eqn 1' refer to in the context of the Bohr Atom?
It likely refers to a specific equation related to the Bohr model.
p.85
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the relationship between orbitals and the Schrödinger wave equation?
Orbitals are mathematical solutions of the Schrödinger wave equation.
p.114
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
What is indicated by the sharp rise in the successive ionization energies of sodium?
It indicates that electrons are being removed from shells closer to the nucleus.
p.1
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What course does Prof. A P L Tong teach?
CHEM 1042 - General Chemistry I.
p.15
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What are the main types of electromagnetic radiation?
Radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays.
p.109
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
What are the two types of atomic radii mentioned?
Covalent radius and metallic radius.
p.88
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What do the 95% probability surfaces represent?
The regions where an electron is likely to be found.
p.4
Modern View of Atomic Structure
What is the focus of Chapter 2 in 'General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications'?
Atoms & the Atomic Theory.
p.20
Photoelectric Effect and Atomic Emission Spectra
What is one phenomenon that classical physics cannot explain?
The photoelectric effect.
p.118
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
What is the general trend of electron affinities in main-group elements?
Smaller atoms to the right of the periodic table tend to have more negative electron affinities.
p.85
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What do the solutions to the Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen atom provide?
Wave functions, which are called orbitals.
p.2
Modern View of Atomic Structure
What is silicon?
A chemical element and a key component of many materials.
p.15
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What is electromagnetic radiation?
A form of energy that travels through space at the speed of light.
p.89
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What do d orbitals represent in the context of the hydrogen atom?
They represent a set of five specific shapes of electron probability distributions.
p.97
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What effect does shielding have on outer electrons?
It reduces the actual nuclear charge felt by more distant electrons.
p.89
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does a 95% probability surface indicate?
It indicates the region where there is a 95% chance of finding an electron.
p.70
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the relationship between electron probability and electron charge density?
Electron probability is proportional to electron charge density.
p.17
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What causes the dark bands in an interference pattern?
Out of phase waves resulting in destructive interference.
p.82
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What do quantum numbers describe in the hydrogen atom?
They describe size, energy, shape, and orientation of orbitals.
p.53
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What does the diffraction of electrons confirm?
The wave-like properties of electrons.
p.78
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What is the significance of the Schrödinger equation in quantum theory?
It describes how quantum systems evolve over time.
p.117
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What happens to EA values when a nonmetal atom gains a second electron?
EA values are positive due to strong repulsion when adding to a negative ion.
p.113
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
In which direction do ionization energies generally increase on the periodic table?
From the lower left corner to the upper right corner.
p.8
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
In a chemical reaction, which particles are involved?
Only electrons take part; the nuclei do not.
p.113
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
Which type of atoms require more energy to ionize?
Noble gas atoms require more energy than atoms of elements immediately preceding or following them.
p.83
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What is the formula for the energy levels of a hydrogen atom?
E_n = -2.179 × 10^(-18) J / n^2.
p.83
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What do the orbital energies for a hydrogen atom depend on?
They depend only on the principal quantum number n.
p.108
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
What happens to ionization energy as you move across a period?
Ionization energy generally increases across a period.
p.17
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What causes the most intense bands in an interference pattern?
The two waves being perfectly in phase, resulting in constructive interference.
p.45
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What is the equation for the energy of a photon?
Ephoton = hν, where h is Planck's constant and ν is the frequency.
p.63
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
How should we view electrons in atoms considering wave-particle duality and the uncertainty principle?
Electrons should be viewed as having both wave-like and particle-like properties, with inherent uncertainties in their position and momentum.
p.114
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
Which electron shells are much closer to the nucleus in sodium's ionization energy trend?
The 2nd and 10th electrons.
p.117
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is electron affinity (EA)?
The enthalpy change that occurs when an atom in the gas phase gains an electron.
p.113
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
How do ionization energies change with atomic radii?
Ionization energies decrease as atomic radii increase.
p.4
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
What topics are covered in sections 9-3, 9-4, and 9-5?
The Periodic Table & Some Atomic Properties.
p.15
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What is the speed of electromagnetic radiation in a vacuum?
Approximately 299,792 kilometers per second (or about 300,000 km/s).
p.15
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
How does wavelength relate to electromagnetic radiation?
Wavelength is the distance between successive peaks of a wave and determines the type of electromagnetic radiation.
p.15
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What is the relationship between frequency and energy in electromagnetic radiation?
Higher frequency corresponds to higher energy.
p.27
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What does the dual nature of light refer to?
The ability of light to exhibit both wave and particle properties.
p.61
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
What is the uncertainty in position (Δx) of the ball?
1% of 0.05 m, which is 5 × 10⁻⁴ m.
p.49
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What is a major limitation of the Bohr Model regarding emission spectra?
It cannot explain the emission spectra of atoms and ions with more than one electron.
p.5
Modern View of Atomic Structure
What are the main components inside an atom?
Protons, neutrons, and electrons.
p.91
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What does the quantum number 'n' represent?
The principal quantum number, indicating the energy level of an electron.
p.30
Atomic Emission Spectra
What type of spectra do emitted light produce when excited in gas flames?
Discontinuous spectra called atomic or line spectra.
p.86
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does part (b) illustrate regarding the 1s orbital?
A contour map of the 1s orbital probability density in the xy plane, highlighting the 95% contour.
p.45
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What is the formula for the change in energy in terms of quantum numbers?
∆E = 2.179 × 10^(-18) J (1/ni^2 - 1/nf^2).
p.45
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
In the equation c = λν, what do λ and ν represent?
λ is the wavelength and ν is the frequency of the wave.
p.14
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What does the electromagnetic spectrum represent?
A range of electromagnetic radiation with increasing energy.
p.14
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What are the approximate characteristics of electromagnetic radiation?
Wavelength and frequency ranges.
p.6
Modern View of Atomic Structure
What are the three main components of an atom?
Protons, electrons, and neutrons.
p.17
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What is diffraction?
The bending of a wave around an object or through an aperture.
p.24
Photoelectric Effect and Atomic Emission Spectra
What is the photoelectric effect?
The phenomenon where energy from EM radiation pushes tiny particles of negative charge free from a metal surface.
p.57
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
What does the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle state about position and momentum?
A very precise measurement of position allows for many possible values of momentum, and vice versa.
p.66
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What happens if the electron wave does not fit the orbit's circumference?
The wave would partially cancel itself, reducing amplitude to zero.
p.111
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
What happens to atomic radii when moving down a group?
Atomic radii increase due to the addition of successive electron shells.
p.95
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the energy level characteristic of orbitals in a hydrogen atom?
Orbitals within a principal shell are energetically degenerate.
p.98
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What do radial distribution functions represent in atomic orbitals?
They show the value of r²R²(r) as a function of r for the orbitals in the first three principal shells.
p.82
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is the significance of the principal quantum number?
It indicates the size and energy level of the orbital.
p.10
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What is a wave?
A disturbance that transmits energy through space or a material medium.
p.95
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What generally happens to orbital energies as the principal quantum number (n) increases in a multielectron atom?
Orbital energies increase with the value of n.
p.45
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What does ∆E represent in the equation ∆E = Ef - Ei?
The change in energy between the final and initial states.
p.92
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is a key factor to consider in multielectron atoms?
Mutual repulsion between electrons.
p.92
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What equation needs to be approximated for multielectron atoms?
The Schrödinger equation.
p.92
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
How do the orbitals of multielectron atoms compare to those of hydrogen atoms?
They are of the same types.
p.85
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does the symbol ψ² represent in quantum mechanics?
A quantity related to probability density distributions.
p.8
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What determines the stability of some elements or compounds over others?
The electronic structure and arrangement of electrons.
p.104
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does 'Solution' refer to in the context of Class Practice 13?
The answer or method used to solve the problems presented.
p.97
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the role of inner electrons in shielding?
Inner electrons shield outer electrons from experiencing the full strength of nuclear charge.
p.113
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
Where do the minima on the ionization energy graph occur?
At the atomic numbers of the alkali metals.
p.97
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does Z represent in atomic structure?
Z represents the atomic number, which is the number of protons in the nucleus.
p.25
Photoelectric Effect and Atomic Emission Spectra
What does the classical model of light predict about photoelectrons and red light?
Photoelectrons should pop out even with red light if the intensity is high enough.
p.68
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the wave function for a particle in a box when n = 2?
𝜓₂(𝑥) = (2/L) sin(2𝜋𝑥/L).
p.24
Photoelectric Effect and Atomic Emission Spectra
How did light behave when interacting with electrons in the context of the photoelectric effect?
It did not behave as classical theory predicted.
p.101
Electron Configurations
Which element has the maximum number of unpaired electrons in this series?
Nitrogen (3 unpaired electrons).
p.58
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the primary focus of quantum mechanics?
The behavior of matter and energy at the smallest scales, such as atoms and subatomic particles.
p.76
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
In what terms are wave functions most easily analyzed?
In terms of the three variables required to define a point with respect to the nucleus.
p.91
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What does the quantum number 'ℓ' represent?
The azimuthal quantum number, indicating the shape of the orbital.
p.16
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What occurs during constructive interference?
The crests and troughs of two waves are in phase, leading to the addition of the two waves.
p.76
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What coordinates can be used in the Schrödinger equations for the hydrogen atom?
Cartesian coordinates and spherical polar coordinates.
p.82
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What does the angular momentum quantum number determine?
The shape of the orbital.
p.10
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What is the simplest example of wave motion?
A traveling wave in a rope.
p.28
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
How is energy related to frequency according to Planck's equation?
Energy is proportional to frequency; higher frequency means greater energy.
p.63
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
What principle states that certain pairs of physical properties cannot be simultaneously known with arbitrary precision?
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
p.109
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
What is the significance of atomic radii in understanding periodic trends?
They help in comparing the sizes of different atoms.
p.114
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
What is the trend observed in the successive ionization energies of sodium?
A general increase in ionization energy.
p.87
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the trend in size for the s orbitals of the hydrogen atom?
The size is increasing from 1s to 3s.
p.19
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What occurs when a beam of white light passes through a glass prism?
The wavelength components are refracted differently, creating a spectrum of colors.
p.14
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
How does the visible region compare to the entire electromagnetic spectrum?
It is only a small portion of the entire spectrum.
p.1
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the primary focus of the topic 'Atoms: The Quantum World'?
The study of atomic structure and behavior at the quantum level.
p.115
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is the electron configuration of Beryllium (Be)?
1s² 2s² (full - filled subshell).
p.105
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What determines the block of an element in the periodic table?
The subshells being filled.
p.113
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
What is ionization energy?
The quantity of energy a gaseous atom must absorb to expel an electron.
p.8
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the significance of electrons in atoms during chemical reactions?
Electrons are responsible for the chemical properties and reactivity of atoms.
p.108
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
What is one example of a periodic trend?
Atomic radius generally decreases across a period and increases down a group.
p.108
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
How does electronegativity change in the periodic table?
Electronegativity increases across a period and decreases down a group.
p.34
Atomic Emission Spectra
What does the limited number of well-defined wavelength lines in the hydrogen atomic spectrum indicate?
Only certain energies are allowed for the electron in the hydrogen atom.
p.66
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What did de Broglie argue about the electron in the hydrogen atom?
That it behaves like a standing wave.
p.17
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What is interference?
The combination of two or more waves to form a composite wave.
p.97
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is Z eff?
Z eff, or effective nuclear charge, is the actual nuclear charge felt by an electron.
p.53
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What was used to demonstrate the diffraction of X-rays?
A regular array of atoms in thin metal aluminum.
p.11
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What is wavelength (λ)?
The distance between identical points on successive waves.
p.76
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does the Schrödinger Equation provide for the hydrogen atom?
It provides energy levels and wave functions.
p.70
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does ψ² = 0 indicate?
There is no chance of finding the particle at that point.
p.14
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What is the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum?
The portion that extends from violet at the shortest wavelength to red at the longest wavelength.
p.104
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the purpose of Class Practice 13?
To provide solutions to specific problems or exercises.
p.20
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What is the main limitation of classical physics according to the text?
It cannot explain certain experiments at the microscopic scale.
p.50
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What concept did Einstein suggest regarding light?
That light has particle-like properties which could explain the photoelectric effect.
p.108
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
What is the trend for metallic character in the periodic table?
Metallic character decreases across a period and increases down a group.
p.26
Photoelectric Effect and Atomic Emission Spectra
What phenomenon could not be explained by classical physics?
The photoelectric effect.
p.56
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Who discovered the Uncertainty Principle?
Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg.
p.30
Atomic Emission Spectra
What happens when an ionic compound is introduced into a gas flame?
The flame may acquire a distinctive color indicative of the metal ion present.
p.102
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
Which elements are exceptions in the Aufbau Process?
Chromium (Cr) and Copper (Cu).
p.66
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What would occur if the amplitude of the electron wave is reduced to zero?
The wave would not exist.
p.102
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What special stability do Cr and Cu configurations have?
Stability is achieved when the 3d subshell is half filled (Cr) or completely filled (Cu).
p.72
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the primary concept illustrated by the 'Particle in a Box' model?
It demonstrates the quantization of energy levels in a confined space.
p.48
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What are hydrogen-like ions?
Ions that have only one electron, similar to hydrogen.
p.26
Photoelectric Effect and Atomic Emission Spectra
What did the photoelectric effect demonstrate about light?
It showed the particle properties of light.
p.95
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What happens to the energy of a given orbital as the atomic number (Z) increases?
The energy of a given orbital decreases.
p.58
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does the term 'quantum state' refer to?
The state of a quantum system, characterized by quantum numbers and wave functions.
p.31
Atomic Emission Spectra
What do the colored components of the light appear as when recorded?
Each component appears as an image of the slit – a thin line.
p.35
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What is the main difference between classical physics and quantum physics regarding energy?
Classical physics states energy is continuous, while quantum physics states energy is discontinuous and quantized.
p.100
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What happens to atoms with electron configurations that are not the most stable?
They are said to be in an excited state.
p.36
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What does the Bohr Model suggest about possible orbits for electrons?
Any orbit should be possible and so is any energy.
p.107
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is the Pauli Exclusion Principle in relation to electron configurations?
No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers.
p.12
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What do electromagnetic waves consist of?
Electric and magnetic fields that propagate as waves.
p.115
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is the electron configuration of Nitrogen (N)?
1s² 2s² 2p³ (half - filled subshell).
p.108
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
What are periodic trends?
Patterns in the properties of elements that occur in a predictable manner across periods and groups in the periodic table.
p.113
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
Where do the maxima on the ionization energy graph occur?
At the atomic numbers of the noble gases.
p.89
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
How many d orbitals are there?
There are five d orbitals.
p.27
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What are the two properties of electromagnetic radiation?
Wave properties and particle properties.
p.70
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does the square of the wave function (ψ²) represent?
The probability of finding an electron near a particular point in space, known as electron probability density.
p.50
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What do diffraction patterns suggest about photons?
That photons exhibit wave-like properties.
p.50
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What did Louis de Broglie propose in 1924?
That small particles of matter may display wave-like properties.
p.7
Modern View of Atomic Structure
Where are protons and neutrons located in the atom?
In the nucleus, which is small and dense.
p.57
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
What happens when you measure position very precisely according to the Uncertainty Principle?
Many values of momentum become possible.
p.62
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What concept explains the dual nature of electrons?
Wave-particle duality, as proposed by de Broglie.
p.40
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What is the formula for the energy levels of the hydrogen atom?
E_n = -R_H/n², where R_H is the Rydberg constant.
p.72
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does the 'Particle in a Box' model help to explain?
The behavior of particles confined to a small region of space.
p.40
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What does it mean that the hydrogen atom is quantized?
It means that the energy levels of the hydrogen atom are discrete and not continuous.
p.16
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What is the result of two waves intersecting?
Some places where the waves disappear (destructive interference) and some places where the waves persist (constructive interference).
p.61
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
What does a very small value of Δv indicate?
It indicates a high degree of uncertainty in position leads to a very small uncertainty in velocity.
p.90
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
Is the value of ms dependent on other quantum numbers?
No, it is not dependent on other quantum numbers.
p.106
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is the general order of filling electron orbitals?
From lower to higher energy levels, following the Aufbau principle.
p.98
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does the probability of finding an electron in a spherical shell depend on?
It depends on the radius r and an infinitesimal thickness.
p.28
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What does it mean that energy is quantized?
Energy can only be absorbed or released in certain amounts called quanta.
p.94
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What factors determine the energy of orbitals in a multi-electron atom?
The energy depends on the principal quantum number (n) and the azimuthal quantum number (l).
p.103
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is the purpose of electron configurations?
To describe the distribution of electrons in an atom.
p.48
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
How does the ionization energy of hydrogen-like ions compare to hydrogen?
It is generally higher due to increased nuclear charge.
p.84
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
How does Quantum Theory differ from classical physics?
It incorporates the principles of uncertainty and probability.
p.115
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is the electron configuration of Neon (Ne)?
1s² 2s² 2p⁶ (full - filled quantum shell).
p.115
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What contributes to the extra stability of certain electron configurations?
Full or half-filled subshells.
p.70
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does the wave function (ψ) represent according to Max Born?
It represents the probability of finding a particle within a specified volume of space.
p.70
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the physical significance of ψ?
ψ has no physical significance.
p.56
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
What two variables must be measured to understand the behavior of subatomic particles?
The position of the particle (x) and its momentum (p = mu).
p.66
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What must the length of the electron wave do in relation to the orbit's circumference?
It must fit the circumference of the orbit exactly.
p.30
Atomic Emission Spectra
What type of spectrum is the visible spectrum?
A continuous spectrum containing many wavelength components.
p.102
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is the Aufbau Process?
The method of filling electron orbitals in order of increasing energy levels.
p.11
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What does amplitude (A) represent in a wave?
The vertical distance from the midline of a wave to the peak or trough.
p.25
Photoelectric Effect and Atomic Emission Spectra
What is the discrepancy observed in the photoelectric effect?
The results do not align with the predictions of the classical model.
p.11
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
How is frequency (ν) defined?
The number of waves that pass through a particular point in 1 second (Hz = 1 cycle/s).
p.64
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What are the two types of waves in a string?
Traveling waves and standing waves.
p.111
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
Why do atomic radii decrease from left to right across a period?
Each element has one more proton and one more electron, increasing nuclear charge while electrons shield each other ineffectively.
p.98
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
How does the orbital angular momentum quantum number affect electron penetration?
The smaller the orbital angular momentum quantum number, the more closely an electron approaches the nucleus.
p.64
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
How does a traveling wave behave in a string?
Every portion of the rope goes through an identical up-and-down motion, transmitting energy along the entire length.
p.95
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
For a fixed value of n in a multielectron atom, how do orbital energies change?
Orbital energies increase with the value of ℓ.
p.81
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What does the principal quantum number (n) indicate?
The size and energy of the orbital; higher values mean greater energy and distance from the nucleus.
p.36
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What is a key question regarding electron arrangement in the Bohr Model?
How are the electrons arranged?
p.23
Photoelectric Effect and Atomic Emission Spectra
What phenomenon did Heinrich Hertz discover in 1887?
The photoelectric effect.
p.107
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What does the electron configuration of an atom indicate?
The arrangement of electrons in atomic orbitals.
p.74
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
How can the particle-in-a-box model be applied?
It can be applied to a hydrogen atom.
p.72
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What happens to the energy levels as the size of the box increases in the 'Particle in a Box' model?
The energy levels become closer together.
p.103
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What does the electron configuration of an atom indicate?
The energy levels and sublevels occupied by electrons.
p.75
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does the Schrödinger equation incorporate?
Both the particle and wave nature of the electron.
p.35
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What is the value of Planck's constant (h)?
6.62607 × 10^-34 J s molecule^-1.
p.117
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What does a more negative value of EA indicate?
A higher affinity for the atom to gain an electron.
p.22
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What is the main difference between classical physics and quantum physics?
Classical physics is continuous, while quantum physics is discontinuous.
p.83
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What is the significance of the principal quantum number n in a hydrogen atom?
It determines the energy levels of the atom.
p.34
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What is the significance of the allowed energies for the electron in the hydrogen atom?
It implies quantization of energy levels.
p.24
Photoelectric Effect and Atomic Emission Spectra
What was the outcome of investigations into the photoelectric effect?
Results did not fit with the classical theory of EM radiation.
p.25
Photoelectric Effect and Atomic Emission Spectra
According to the classical model, how should electrons behave in a system with continuous energy?
Electrons should take a while to capture enough diffuse energy to free themselves.
p.70
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What happens to ψ² when ψ is negative?
ψ² remains positive, as it is the square of the wave function.
p.71
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does the 'Particle in a Box' model help illustrate?
The quantization of energy levels in a confined space.
p.90
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is the fourth quantum number that describes electron spin?
The electron spin quantum number, ms.
p.101
Electron Configurations
What is completed in the filling of subshells for elements Z = 7 to 10?
The filling of the subshell is completed.
p.74
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does the particle-in-a-box model extend to in a 3-D box?
The particle can move in all directions (x, y, and z).
p.48
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What is the ionization energy of hydrogen?
The energy needed to remove the outermost electron from a hydrogen atom.
p.91
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What does the quantum number 'ms' represent?
The spin quantum number, indicating the spin direction of the electron.
p.106
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What does the electron configuration of an atom indicate?
The energy levels and sublevels occupied by electrons.
p.31
Atomic Emission Spectra
What happens to He atoms when an electric discharge is passed through the lamp?
They absorb energy and then emit it as light.
p.18
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What is diffraction?
A phenomenon that can be explained only as a property of waves.
p.48
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
Can you name an example of a hydrogen-like ion?
Helium ion (He+), Lithium ion (Li2+), etc.
p.65
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does the variable 'n' represent in the equation for standing waves?
A whole number (1, 2, 3, ...).
p.81
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What does the angular momentum quantum number (ℓ) represent?
The shape of atomic orbitals, also known as subshells.
p.44
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What does the Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom describe?
The quantized energy levels of electrons in a hydrogen atom.
p.43
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What is the formula for the change in energy (∆E) in the Bohr model?
∆E = Ef - Ei = RH (1/ni² - 1/nf²).
p.77
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does 'r' represent in the spherical polar coordinate system?
The distance of the point from the nucleus.
p.3
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What does electromagnetic radiation interact with?
Matter, influencing atomic and molecular behavior.
p.37
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What characterizes each orbit in the Bohr model?
Each orbit is characterized by a fixed radius (r) and a fixed energy (E).
p.43
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What assumption is made about the electron's movement in the Bohr model?
The electron moves in a circular orbit of fixed radius around the nucleus.
p.47
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What does n_i represent in the ionization energy formula?
The initial energy level of the electron, starting at n_i = 1 for hydrogen.
What is the significance of ionization energy in relation to electron configurations?
It indicates the energy required to remove an electron, influenced by subshell stability.
p.53
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What phenomenon demonstrates the wave properties of electrons?
Diffraction of electrons by metal aluminum.
p.7
Modern View of Atomic Structure
What is the approximate nuclear radius?
5 x 10^-3 pm or 5 x 10^-15 m.
p.6
Modern View of Atomic Structure
What does Thomson's plum-pudding model suggest about the distribution of charge in an atom?
It suggests that positive charge is spread over the entire sphere ('pudding') with negative charges ('plums') embedded in it.
p.71
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What are the boundary conditions for a particle in a box?
The wave function must be zero at the walls of the box.
p.62
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What is the implication of wave-particle duality for electrons?
Electrons exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties.
p.30
Atomic Emission Spectra
What characterizes atomic or line spectra?
They consist of a limited number of discrete wavelength components.
p.74
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the equation that describes the quantization of energy in a 3-D box?
E_n = (h^2 / 8m) * (n_x^2 / L_x^2 + n_y^2 / L_y^2 + n_z^2 / L_z^2).
p.65
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
How is the wavelength (λ) of standing waves related to the path length (L)?
λ = 2L/n, where n = 1, 2, 3, ...
p.5
Modern View of Atomic Structure
What is the relative mass of neutrons compared to protons?
Neutrons have a similar mass to protons.
p.79
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is the Principal Quantum Number (n) and its possible values?
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, … (positive, nonzero integer).
p.74
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
How many quantum numbers are needed in a 3-D system?
Three quantum numbers, one for each direction.
p.100
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What does the orbital diagram for carbon indicate about its electrons?
Electrons in different, singly occupied orbitals of the same subshell have parallel spins.
p.72
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is a key feature of the wave functions in the 'Particle in a Box' model?
They are standing waves that correspond to quantized energy states.
p.18
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What causes the colors observed in the diffraction of light?
The various wavelengths of visible light are not all scattered in the same way.
p.81
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
How is the number of subshells in a principal shell determined?
It is the same as the number of allowed values of the angular momentum quantum number (ℓ).
p.67
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does the wave function (ψ) represent in quantum mechanics?
It describes the wavelike properties of a particle.
p.103
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is the general order of filling electron orbitals?
According to the Aufbau principle, from lowest to highest energy.
p.75
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the purpose of the Schrödinger equation?
To obtain the energy levels and wave functions needed to describe a quantum mechanical system.
p.52
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What is the significance of momentum in de Broglie's relation?
Momentum (mv) is a particle property.
What is the Paschen series in the hydrogen emission spectrum?
Transitions to the lower energy level of 3, resulting in infrared light.
p.71
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the primary concept explored in the 'Particle in a Box' model?
The behavior of a quantum particle confined in a potential well.
p.61
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
How is the uncertainty in velocity (Δv) calculated?
Δv = Δp/m = h/(4π) * Δx * m.
p.48
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What is ionization energy?
The energy required to remove an electron from an atom or ion.
p.30
Atomic Emission Spectra
What are examples of alkali metals that produce light when excited in gas flames?
Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), and Potassium (K).
p.51
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What is the de Broglie relation?
It relates the wavelength (λ) of a particle to its momentum (p) as λ = h/p.
p.58
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
What does the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle state?
It is impossible to simultaneously know both the position and momentum of a particle with absolute precision.
p.28
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What does Planck's constant (h) equal?
6.62607 × 10^-34 J s molecule^-1.
p.90
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
How does electron spin affect magnetic fields?
Two electrons with opposing spins create magnetic fields that cancel each other, resulting in no net magnetic field.
p.96
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the effect of electrons in orbitals closer to the nucleus on outer electrons?
They screen or shield the nucleus from electrons farther away.
p.33
Atomic Emission Spectra
What is the hydrogen spectrum known for?
It is the most well-studied atomic spectrum.
p.84
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What is a key concept introduced by Quantum Theory?
The wave-particle duality of matter.
p.18
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What happens when X-rays are directed onto a crystal?
The scattered radiation produces a diffraction pattern of bright areas and dark spots.
p.21
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What does quantum physics describe?
The motion and interactions of small bodies.
p.23
Photoelectric Effect and Atomic Emission Spectra
What does the kinetic energy (KE) of the emitted electrons depend on?
The frequency of the light.
p.37
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What occurs when an electron falls from a higher energy orbit to a lower energy orbit?
An electron emits energy as a photon.
p.77
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is R(r) called?
The radial wave function.
p.59
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
What is the accuracy of the position of the electron in the hydrogen atom?
1% of the hydrogen radius.
p.3
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What are quantum numbers?
They are numbers that describe the properties of atomic orbitals and the electrons in those orbitals.
p.33
Atomic Emission Spectra
In Balmer's equation, what must 'n' be?
An integer greater than 2.
p.38
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What is the formula for the radius of allowed orbits in a hydrogen atom?
r_n = n^2 * a_0, where a_0 = 53 pm.
p.59
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
How does the uncertainty in the velocity of an electron compare to that of a ball?
The uncertainty in the velocity of the electron is significantly larger due to its much smaller mass.
p.62
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
What does the Uncertainty Principle suggest about the position and momentum of an electron?
It states that the exact position and momentum of an electron cannot be simultaneously known.
p.62
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
Why is the Bohr model considered incorrect?
Because it constrains an electron to a 1-D orbit, which is not feasible.
p.68
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What does 'n' represent in the wave function equation?
The quantum number, which can take values 1, 2, 3, ...
p.40
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What does the equation ΔE = hν represent?
The relationship between energy change (ΔE) and frequency (ν) in quantum theory.
p.28
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What is Planck's equation for energy?
E = hν, where E is energy, ν is frequency, and h is Planck's constant.
p.91
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What does the quantum number 'mℓ' represent?
The magnetic quantum number, indicating the orientation of the orbital.
p.106
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is the purpose of electron configurations?
To describe the distribution of electrons in an atom.
p.84
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What is the main focus of Quantum Theory?
The behavior of matter and energy at atomic and subatomic levels.
p.58
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is the significance of quantum numbers in quantum mechanics?
They describe the properties of atomic orbitals and the electrons in those orbitals.
p.75
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What conceptual model helps in understanding the hydrogen atom?
A model developed from the ideas of Wave Mechanics.
p.110
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
How do cations compare in size to the atoms from which they are formed?
Cations are smaller than the atoms from which they are formed.
p.84
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What does Quantum Theory explain about energy?
Energy is quantized and can exist in discrete packets called quanta.
p.31
Atomic Emission Spectra
How is the emitted light from helium processed to create a spectrum?
The light is passed through a narrow slit and dispersed by a prism.
p.3
Modern View of Atomic Structure
What is the modern view of atomic structure?
It incorporates quantum mechanics to describe the behavior and arrangement of electrons in atoms.
p.55
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What is the formula to calculate the de Broglie wavelength?
λ = h / (mv), where h is Planck's constant, m is mass, and v is velocity.
p.69
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What must the wavelengths of the matter wave fit into?
The boundary conditions of the box.
p.55
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the mass of the Ping-Pong ball in kilograms?
2.5 g is equivalent to 2.5 x 10^-3 kg.
p.52
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What is a noticeable effect of wave properties?
It is more pronounced for small objects.
p.21
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What limitation does classical physics have regarding energy?
It places no limitations on the amount of energy a system may possess.
p.43
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What are the conditions for absorption and emission in the Bohr model?
For absorption, nf > ni; for emission, ni > nf.
p.38
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What happens to an electron when the hydrogen atom is excited?
The electron is raised to higher-numbered orbits.
p.3
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the quantum mechanical model of the atom?
It describes electrons in terms of probabilities and wave functions rather than fixed orbits.
p.47
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
How does the ionization energy formula change for hydrogen-like ions?
The nuclear charge (Z) is included in the energy-level expression: E_n = R_H (n^2 - Z^2).
p.10
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What is electromagnetic radiation?
A form of energy transmission where electric and magnetic fields are propagated as waves.
p.56
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
What does the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle state about measuring position and momentum?
They cannot be measured with great precision simultaneously; knowing one precisely makes the other imprecise.
p.49
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What fundamental postulate of the Bohr Model is considered inadequate?
The postulate of quantized angular momentum forcing an electron into a circular orbit.
p.101
Electron Configurations
What happens to the number of unpaired electrons from nitrogen to neon?
It decreases from three (nitrogen) to zero (neon).
p.10
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
How can electromagnetic radiation propagate?
Through a vacuum or through a medium, such as glass.
p.82
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What does the magnetic quantum number indicate?
The orientation of the orbital in space.
p.64
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What are nodes in a standing wave?
Points that undergo no displacement at all.
p.43
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What does the variable 'n' represent in the context of the Bohr model?
The principal quantum number, indicating the energy level of the electron.
p.13
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What is the unit of wavelength in electromagnetic radiation?
Meters (m), with subunits cm, µm, nm, Å, and pm.
What is the Lyman series in the hydrogen emission spectrum?
Transitions to the lower energy level of 1, resulting in ultraviolet light.
p.77
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What do the angles θ and φ describe in the spherical polar coordinate system?
The orientation of the distance line, r, with respect to the x, y, and z axes.
p.42
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What occurs when an electron drops from a higher to a lower energy level?
A unique quantity of energy is emitted.
p.81
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What does the magnetic quantum number (mℓ) describe?
The orientation of the orbital in space relative to other orbitals in the atom.
p.23
Photoelectric Effect and Atomic Emission Spectra
What happens when a photon of energy strikes a bound electron?
The electron absorbs the photon energy.
p.96
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
How does penetration affect the screening ability of an electron?
An electron in an orbital with good penetration is better at screening than one with low penetration.
p.38
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What does the Bohr model allow us to calculate regarding hydrogen atoms?
The radii of the allowed orbits and the energies of these orbits.
p.3
Energy Levels and Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
What do energy levels and shapes of atomic orbitals indicate?
They indicate the probable locations and energies of electrons in an atom.
p.3
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
What are periodic trends in atomic properties?
They include trends such as atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, and electron affinities.
p.95
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
How do orbital energies in a multielectron atom differ from those in a hydrogen atom?
In a multielectron atom, orbitals within a principal shell have different energies.
p.57
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
What happens when you measure momentum very precisely according to the Uncertainty Principle?
Many values of position become possible.
p.49
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What significant development in physics followed the inadequacies of the Bohr Model?
The emergence of New Quantum Physics in 1926.
p.111
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
What effect does increasing nuclear charge have on atomic size?
It causes atoms to become more compact.
p.31
Atomic Emission Spectra
What is the light source used to produce the atomic spectrum of helium?
A lamp containing He gas at low pressure.
p.7
Modern View of Atomic Structure
Where do electrons occupy in an atom?
The empty space outside the nucleus.
p.10
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What is the distance between two identical points in a wave called?
Wavelength, denoted as λ.
p.37
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What did Niels Bohr postulate about the electron in a hydrogen atom?
The electron moves about the nucleus in fixed circular orbits.
p.75
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does the model of the hydrogen atom help to understand?
Multielectron atoms, organization of elements in the periodic table, and the physical and chemical properties of elements and their compounds.
p.110
Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
How do anions compare in size to the atoms from which they are formed?
Anions are larger than the atoms from which they are formed.
p.21
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What did Planck propose about energy?
Energy, like matter, is discontinuous.
p.106
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is the significance of the Pauli Exclusion Principle in electron configurations?
No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers.
p.65
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
How is the total number of nodes in a standing wave calculated?
Total number of nodes = n + 1.
p.65
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the significance of half-wavelengths in standing waves?
They represent the segments of the wave pattern in the string.
p.69
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the relationship between energy and the quantum number n?
E_k = (n^2 * h^2) / (8mL^2)
p.107
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What does Hund's Rule state?
Electrons will occupy degenerate orbitals singly before pairing up.
p.38
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What is the formula for the energy of the orbits in the Bohr model?
E_n = -R_H / n^2, where R_H = 2.17868 × 10^(-18) J.
p.49
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What does the inadequacy of the Bohr Model indicate about its basis?
It has no basis in fundamental physics.
p.68
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the significance of the wave function in quantum mechanics?
It describes the probability amplitude of a particle's position.
p.11
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What is a distinctive feature of electromagnetic radiation?
Its constant speed in a vacuum.
p.71
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the formula for the energy levels of a particle in a one-dimensional box?
E_n = n^2 * (h^2 / (8mL^2)) where n is a quantum number.
p.64
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What characterizes a standing wave?
Crests and troughs occur at fixed positions, and the amplitude at the fixed ends is zero.
p.102
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
Which orbitals do electrons fill in the series from Sc to Zn?
The d orbitals of the third shell.
p.52
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What is the de Broglie relation for wavelength?
λ = h/p = h/(mu), where λ is the de Broglie wavelength.
p.99
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is the primary goal of electron configuration in an atom?
To minimize the energy of the atom.
p.5
Modern View of Atomic Structure
Where are electrons located in an atom?
In the electron cloud surrounding the nucleus.
p.79
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is the range of values for the Angular Momentum Quantum Number (ℓ)?
ℓ = 0, 1, 2, 3,…, n – 1 (may be zero or a positive integer, but not > n – 1).
p.37
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What happens to the energy of an electron when it remains in a fixed orbit?
Its energy is constant and no energy is emitted.
p.69
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
How is the wavelength (λ) related to the momentum (p) of a particle?
λ = h / p (de Broglie's relation)
p.18
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
How does diffraction produce a similar effect to a prism?
The colors are 'separated' when light passes through a diffraction grating.
p.21
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What does classical physics describe?
The motion and interactions of big bodies.
p.31
Atomic Emission Spectra
What does each element's line spectrum represent?
A kind of atomic fingerprint unique to that element.
What is the Balmer series in the hydrogen emission spectrum?
Transitions to the lower energy level of 2, resulting in visible light.
p.79
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
How is the total number of mℓ values calculated?
Total number of mℓ = 2ℓ + 1.
p.42
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What is the formula for the energy difference when an electron transitions between levels?
∆E = E_f - E_i = R_H (1/n_i^2 - 1/n_f^2).
p.77
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is Υ(θ, φ) referred to as?
The angular wave function.
p.59
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What is Planck's constant?
6.626 × 10⁻³⁴ J·s or 6.626 × 10⁻³⁴ kg·m²·s⁻¹.
p.16
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What happens during destructive interference?
The crests and troughs of two waves are out of phase, leading to the cancellation of the two waves.
p.72
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
In the 'Particle in a Box' model, what determines the energy levels of the particle?
The size of the box and the mass of the particle.
p.107
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is the purpose of electron configurations?
To describe the distribution of electrons in an atom.
p.96
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
How do screening electrons affect the nuclear charge felt by outer electrons?
They reduce the effectiveness of the nucleus in attracting more distant electrons, decreasing the nuclear charge the outer electron feels.
p.99
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What does the Pauli Exclusion Principle state?
No two electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum numbers; electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins.
p.36
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
According to classical physics, what should happen to orbiting electrons?
They should be constantly accelerating and radiate energy.
p.60
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
What does the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle state about the product of uncertainties in position and momentum?
The smallest possible uncertainty in the product Δx · Δp is h/4π.
p.106
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What does Hund's Rule state regarding electron configurations?
Electrons will occupy degenerate orbitals singly before pairing up.
p.13
Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter
What is the speed of electromagnetic radiation in a vacuum?
2.997925 × 10⁸ m/s (or approximately 3.00 × 10⁸ m/s).
p.99
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What does the Aufbau Principle describe?
The order of filling of electronic subshells, starting from the lowest energy level.
p.60
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
What is the calculated uncertainty in momentum (Δp) of the electron?
Δp = 1.05 × 10^−22 kg·m·s^−1.
p.21
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
How does quantum theory limit energy?
It limits energy to a discrete set of specific values.
p.51
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
How can momentum (p) be expressed in terms of mass (m) and velocity (u)?
p = mu, where m is the mass of the particle and u is its velocity.
p.107
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is the general format for writing electron configurations?
Using the notation of subshells and the number of electrons in each subshell.
p.79
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What are the possible values for the Magnetic Quantum Number (mℓ)?
mℓ = −ℓ, (−ℓ + 1), …, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, …, (ℓ − 1), +ℓ (may be a negative or positive integer, including zero).
p.37
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What is the relationship between angular momentum and quantum number in the Bohr model?
The electron’s angular momentum is an integer multiple of (ℎ / 2𝜋), where ℓ = n × (ℎ / 2𝜋).
p.18
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
Why does the diffraction pattern occur?
Because the scattered light can interfere constructively or destructively.
p.67
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What is the equation for the wave function of a particle in a 1-D box?
ψₙ(x) = (2/L) sin(nπx/L), where n = 1, 2, 3, ...
p.3
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What does the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom describe?
It describes electrons orbiting the nucleus in fixed paths or energy levels.
p.52
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What is λ in the context of de Broglie's hypothesis?
It represents the wave property associated with particles.
p.69
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
What does the conclusion about quantization imply?
It gives rise to quantization of the wave's energy.
p.33
Atomic Emission Spectra
What is Balmer's equation used for?
To calculate the frequency of the spectral lines.
p.21
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What is a quantum of energy?
The specific value of the difference between any two allowed energies of a system.
p.23
Photoelectric Effect and Atomic Emission Spectra
What condition must be met for electrons to be ejected in the photoelectric effect?
The frequency of the incident light must be greater than a particular threshold value (ν > ν₀).
p.42
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What happens when an electron in a hydrogen atom gains a quantum of energy?
It moves to a higher energy level and the atom is in an excited state.
p.99
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is Hund's Rule?
Electrons will fill orbitals of equivalent energy in such a way that as many spins remain unpaired and parallel as possible.
p.23
Photoelectric Effect and Atomic Emission Spectra
What does the number of emitted electrons depend on?
The intensity of the incident light.
p.3
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What is Planck's quantum theory?
It proposes that energy is quantized and can be emitted or absorbed in discrete units called quanta.
p.51
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What is the significance of the de Broglie wavelength?
It describes the wave-like behavior of particles, such as electrons.
p.77
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
How can orbitals be expressed in the spherical polar coordinate system?
In terms of one function R that depends only on r, and a second function Υ that depends on θ and φ.
p.81
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
How is the number of orbitals in a subshell related to mℓ?
It is the same as the number of allowed values of mℓ for a particular value of ℓ.
p.99
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
What is required for two electrons in the same orbital according to the Pauli Exclusion Principle?
They must have anti-parallel spins.
p.60
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
How is the uncertainty in velocity (Δv) of the electron determined?
Δv = Δp/m, where m is the mass of the electron.
p.94
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
In a multi-electron atom, are different subshells in the same principal shell degenerate?
No, they are no longer degenerate.
p.47
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What is the formula for the ionization energy of hydrogen?
E_i = R_H (n_i^2 - 1/n_f^2) = hν.
p.23
Photoelectric Effect and Atomic Emission Spectra
What is the work function in the context of the photoelectric effect?
The energy binding the electron to the surface.
p.55
Wave-Particle Duality and de Broglie's Hypothesis
What is the de Broglie wavelength in picometers from Class Practice 6?
24.2 pm (2.4 x 10^-11 m).
p.47
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What is the ionization energy of hydrogen-like ions such as He+, Li2+, or Be3+?
It can be calculated using E_i = Z^2 R_H.
p.47
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What is the value of R_H for hydrogen?
R_H is a constant used in the ionization energy calculations.
p.21
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
What phenomena did classical physics fail to explain?
Photoelectric effect and line emission spectra.
p.21
Quantum Theory and Planck's Hypothesis
How does energy increase in quantum theory?
It increases by a tiny jump, or quantum, from one allowed value to another.
p.38
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
What does the variable Z represent in the energy formula of the Bohr model?
Z represents the atomic number.
p.23
Photoelectric Effect and Atomic Emission Spectra
What happens if the photon energy exceeds the work function?
A photoelectron is liberated, and excess energy appears as kinetic energy in the photoelectron.
p.59
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
What is the significance of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle in this context?
It relates the uncertainty in position and momentum (or velocity) of particles.
p.3
Electron Configurations
What are electron configurations?
They describe the distribution of electrons among the various orbitals of an atom.
