p.42
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What is the primary energy source for exercise lasting 6 to 10 seconds?
ATP from creatine phosphate and ADP (direct phosphorylation).
p.28
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What gives skeletal muscle its striated appearance?
The arrangement of thick and thin filaments, creating light and dark bands.
p.45
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the purpose of partitioning library fragments in NGS?
To create clusters of identical copies on a solid surface.
p.9
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
What is the function of the collateral ganglion in the Sympathetic Nervous System?
It serves as a relay point for sympathetic fibers to abdominal and pelvic organs.
p.19
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What does the medulla oblongata most directly control?
Activity of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS).
p.44
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the principle of Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS)?
Large numbers of DNA samples are sequenced side-by-side on the same apparatus.
p.1
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
Can we decide when to digest food?
No, digestion is an involuntary process regulated by the autonomic nervous system.
p.32
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) in muscle fibers?
It is the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that wraps around myofibrils.
p.40
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What role does Ca2+ play in muscle contraction?
It is essential for the contraction process.
How many bases does each cluster decode in NGS?
Between 100 and 300 bases.
p.45
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is involved in NGS Library construction?
Fragmenting genomic DNA into small double-stranded pieces and modifying them for compatibility with the sequencing platform.
p.28
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What are the two types of filaments in a sarcomere?
Thick and thin filaments.
p.15
Neuromuscular Junction and Acetylcholine
How do postganglionic neurons differ from typical neurons at the neuro-effector junction?
They don’t have discrete axon terminals.
p.27
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What is the A band in a sarcomere?
A dark band in the middle of a sarcomere containing thick filaments and overlapping thin filaments.
p.25
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What is a muscle fascicle?
A bundle of muscle fibers (cells).
p.31
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What role does titin play in muscle structure?
It provides structural support and elasticity to maintain the alignment of thick filaments in the middle of the sarcomere.
p.66
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What does Sanger Sequencing synthesize?
Partial copies of a target DNA that vary in length by one dideoxynucleotide (ddNTP).
p.43
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What is isometric muscle contraction?
A type of contraction where muscle length does not change, but tension increases.
p.42
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What energy pathway is used for prolonged-duration exercise?
ATP is generated by breaking down several nutrients through the aerobic pathway.
p.24
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What is the primary function of skeletal muscle?
Supporting and moving the skeleton.
p.16
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What initiates signal transmission at neuro-effector junctions?
An action potential arrives at the varicosity.
p.48
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
How does each base affect the current in nanopore sequencing?
Each base blocks the current differently due to its unique structure.
p.1
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What type of control governs heartbeats and digestion?
Involuntary control by the autonomic nervous system.
What issue arises when a read falls into a repeated area of the genome?
It is impossible to determine the exact number of repeats.
p.15
Neuromuscular Junction and Acetylcholine
What is a varicosity in the context of autonomic neuro-effector junctions?
Swellings along the axons of neurons where neurotransmitters are released.
p.49
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is a key feature of adapters in library preparation?
A sequence that is complementary to the oligonucleotides bound to the flow cell or bead.
p.30
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What does the head region of myosin contain?
ATP and actin binding sites.
p.62
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What happens when a voltage is applied across the membrane of a nanopore detector?
Ions flow through the open channel (nanopore).
p.24
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What is the relationship between muscle, tendon, and bone?
Muscle is attached to bone via tendon.
p.25
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
Why is a skeletal muscle cell referred to as a muscle fiber?
Because of its elongated shape, resembling a fiber.
p.58
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is a key advantage of the third generation of sequencing?
Lower cost compared to previous generations.
p.42
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What happens during exercise lasting 30 to 40 seconds?
Glycogen stored in muscles is broken down to glucose, which is oxidized to generate ATP (anaerobic pathway).
p.3
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What is the main function of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)?
To innervate organs and tissues under involuntary control.
p.62
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
How does DNA move through the nanopore?
DNA is pulled through the nanopore to the positive side due to its negative charge.
p.15
Neuromuscular Junction and Acetylcholine
What triggers the release of neurotransmitters from varicosities?
An action potential in the postganglionic neuron.
p.18
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What does the regulation of neuro-effector transmission depend on?
The concentration of transmitter available for binding.
p.36
Neuromuscular Junction and Acetylcholine
Is acetylcholine an excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitter for skeletal muscle?
Excitatory neurotransmitter.
p.33
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
Do thick and thin filaments get shorter during muscle contraction?
No, neither thick nor thin filaments get shorter.
p.48
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
How does a computer decipher the DNA sequence in nanopore sequencing?
By measuring the current changes and differences caused by the bases.
p.9
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
What is the function of the inferior mesenteric ganglion?
It innervates the large intestine and pelvic organs.
p.62
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What proteins can be used to create nanopore detectors?
Proteins such as alpha-hemolysin from Staphylococcus.
p.50
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
How does Ion Torrent sequencing compare to Illumina-based methods in terms of speed?
Ion Torrent sequencing is much faster than Illumina-based methods.
p.41
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What are the three ways to generate ATP in muscle cells?
Phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate, oxidative phosphorylation of ADP in mitochondria, and anaerobic glycolysis.
p.16
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What happens when depolarization occurs at the neuro-effector junction?
Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open, causing an influx of Ca2+.
p.32
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What are terminal cisternae?
Enlarged regions at the end of each sarcoplasmic reticulum.
p.30
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
In which direction does the tail of myosin point?
Towards the M line region.
p.33
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What happens to the muscle during contraction according to the sliding filament theory?
The muscle shortens by overlapping more of the thick and thin myofilaments.
p.9
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
What does the celiac ganglion primarily innervate?
It innervates the stomach, liver, spleen, and pancreas.
p.10
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
What happens when sympathetic preganglionic neurons synapse in the ganglion they first reach?
They synapse with postganglionic neurons at the same spinal level.
p.9
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
Which ganglion is associated with the innervation of the small intestine?
The superior mesenteric ganglion.
p.64
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
How is the DNA sequence determined from the gel?
By reading off the bands in order, starting at the bottom of the gel and reading across all lanes.
p.20
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
What is the pathway of the sympathetic system in pupillary reflexes?
Pre-ganglionic fibers project from the hypothalamus to the superior cervical ganglion, then postganglionic fibers project to the pupillary dilator muscles.
p.36
Neuromuscular Junction and Acetylcholine
What enzyme is responsible for the synthesis of acetylcholine?
Choline acetyl transferase.
p.59
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is another example of Third-Generation Sequencing?
Single-molecule Real-time (SMRT) Sequencing.
p.11
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What neurotransmitter is secreted by sympathetic postganglionic neurons?
Norepinephrine (NE) or epinephrine (E).
p.54
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the purpose of the oligonucleotides on the flow cell?
They are complementary to the adapter ends of the gDNA fragments.
p.45
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the first step in Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS)?
Genomic DNA (gDNA) isolation.
p.3
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What type of muscles does the ANS provide motor control to?
Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands, and adipocytes.
p.49
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the purpose of the index (barcode) sequence in library preparation?
It is unique to the genomic fragments from one sample, used when mixing multiple samples into one reaction.
p.9
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
What is the role of the aorticorenal ganglion?
It innervates the kidneys and adrenal glands.
p.50
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What happens when there are two identical T nucleotides in a row during Ion Torrent sequencing?
DNA polymerase adds two dATP, leading to a change in pH and voltage.
p.20
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What is the role of the pretectal nuclei in pupillary reflexes?
They project to the Edinger-Westphal nucleus.
p.31
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
Where does titin anchor thick filaments?
Between the Z line and M line.
p.21
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What change occurs to the lens when viewing a near object?
The curvature of the lens increases to become convex.
p.38
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What complex covers the active sites of actin when muscle contraction is turned off?
Troponin-tropomyosin complex.
p.31
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What are the key zones and lines in a sarcomere?
A band, Z line, I band, H zone, and M line.
p.53
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the reference genome for humans available for viewing?
The human genome at the Genome Reference Consortium Website.
p.41
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What enzyme is involved in muscle relaxation?
Ca2+ ATPase in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR).
p.38
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
Where is Ca2+ ATPase located?
In the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR).
p.53
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
Why are multiple copies of the genome mixed together in gDNA isolation?
To ensure multiple gDNA fragments from each chromosome in the final gDNA library.
p.2
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What physiological processes does the ANS regulate?
Heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion.
p.11
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What is the exception for sympathetic postganglionic neurons?
Sympathetic cholinergic neurons terminate on sweat glands and secrete acetylcholine.
p.60
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
How do Ion Torrent sequencing and Illumina sequencing differ in terms of DNA fragment attachment?
In Ion Torrent sequencing, DNA fragments are attached to microbeads, while in Illumina sequencing, they are attached to a flow cell.
p.53
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is considered a sufficient average read depth for whole genome sequencing?
An average read depth of 20-30.
p.61
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the purpose of Emulsion PCR in Ion Torrent Sequencing?
To physically separate the beads and amplify the gDNA attached to the beads.
p.1
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
Can we voluntarily control our heartbeats?
No, heartbeats are primarily controlled involuntarily by the autonomic nervous system.
p.43
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What is isotonic muscle contraction?
A type of contraction where tension increases and muscle length changes.
p.30
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What is the structure of a myosin molecule?
It has 2 subunits twisted around each other to form a dimer.
p.10
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
What happens when sympathetic preganglionic neurons continue without synapsing?
They end at a prevertebral ganglion and synapse with postganglionic neurons.
p.28
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What is the significance of striation in skeletal muscle?
It indicates the organized arrangement of myofilaments.
p.64
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What technique is used to separate the products of the four sequencing reactions?
Electrophoresis in a polyacrylamide gel.
p.21
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What happens to the ciliary muscles when viewing a near object?
They contract due to parasympathetic stimulation (M3 muscarinic receptors).
p.21
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What effect does the contraction of ciliary muscles have on the zonular fibers?
The zonular fibers become slack.
p.59
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is a key difference between Third-Generation Sequencing (TGS) and Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS)?
TGS can decode single copies of genomic DNA fragments, while NGS requires multiple copies.
p.20
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What happens when light falls into one eye?
It stimulates retinal photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and retinal ganglion cells.
p.16
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What causes receptor activation to cease?
Norepinephrine (NE) diffuses away from the synapse.
p.16
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
How is norepinephrine (NE) removed from the synapse?
It can be taken back into the synaptic vesicles for re-release or metabolized by monoamine oxidase (MAO).
p.17
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What triggers the release of neurotransmitters in autonomic neuro-effector junctions?
An action potential triggers the release from all varicosities.
p.5
Organization of Autonomic Nervous System
What type of fibers do pre ganglionic neurons use?
Mildly myelinated B fibers.
p.20
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
How do the parasympathetic axons contribute to pupillary reflexes?
They synapse with ciliary ganglion neurons to innervate the pupillary constrictor muscles.
p.60
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What are adapters used for in NGS?
Adapters provide binding sites for sequencing primers, PCR primers, and are complementary to the oligonucleotide of the beads for binding.
p.12
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What is the result of channel opening in nicotinic cholinergic receptors?
Depolarization (excitation) of the postsynaptic cell.
p.54
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is bridge amplification?
A type of PCR where the gDNA fragment bends over so both adapters anneal to the surface via oligonucleotides.
p.5
Organization of Autonomic Nervous System
What is an autonomic ganglion?
A group of neuron cell bodies in the PNS (outside of CNS).
p.23
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What is the primary function of skeletal muscle?
To facilitate movement of the skeleton.
p.62
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the main component of a nanopore detector?
Nanopores (channels) in a membrane.
p.10
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
What is one way sympathetic preganglionic neurons can connect with postganglionic neurons?
They can extend to chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla.
What challenge is faced when aligning reads derived from repeated regions?
It is difficult to determine where the read should be aligned, as it could fit multiple locations in the genome.
p.40
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What is required for muscle contraction and relaxation?
Energy in the form of ATP.
p.50
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is a limitation of Ion Torrent sequencing when dealing with gDNA?
It struggles with multiple identical bases in a row.
p.10
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
What occurs when sympathetic preganglionic neurons ascend or descend?
They synapse with postganglionic neurons at a different spinal level.
p.64
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What do the bands in each lane of the gel represent?
Fragments that have terminated at a given nucleotide.
p.48
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What does the reduction in ionic current depend on?
The base sequence of the DNA.
p.19
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
Which parts of the brain also influence the Autonomic Nervous System?
Cerebral cortex and cerebellum.
p.27
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What is the M line in a sarcomere?
A dark line in the center of the H zone that links thick filaments together.
p.33
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What occurs between the thick and thin filaments during contraction?
The filaments slide and pass each other.
p.54
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the first step in the NGS process according to David Cheung?
To separate or partition the library of gDNA fragments into discrete locations on a solid surface.
p.52
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the purpose of the fluorescent tag in SMRT sequencing?
It emits light upon release from the DNA to identify nucleotide addition.
p.21
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What role does sympathetic stimulation play when viewing a distant object?
It increases via β2-adrenergic receptors.
p.12
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What type of receptors are nicotinic cholinergic receptors?
Ionotropic receptors associated with ion channels.
p.65
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the role of dideoxyribonucleoside triphosphates (ddNTPs) in the Sanger method?
They terminate the DNA chain during replication.
p.13
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What are the two main types of adrenergic receptors?
α (alpha) and β (beta) receptors.
p.21
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What change occurs to the lens when viewing a distant object?
The curvature of the lens becomes less convex.
p.26
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What is the Z line in a sarcomere?
A network of interconnecting proteins attached to one end of thin filaments.
p.29
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What is the role of actin in muscle contraction?
Actin serves as a contractile protein with myosin binding sites.
p.51
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is a limitation of nanopore sequencing technology?
It suffers from inaccuracy that often leads to sequencing errors.
p.39
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What is one medical application of botulinum toxin?
To relieve overactive muscle movements.
p.39
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What cosmetic benefit does botulinum toxin provide?
Reduces face wrinkles and lines.
p.23
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What distinguishes cardiac muscle from other muscle types?
It is involuntary and striated, found only in the heart.
p.47
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is done with excess dGTP after data recording?
It is removed from the chip.
p.37
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What is the role of the transverse tubule (T-tubule) in muscle contraction?
It transduces the membrane depolarization (action potential) to the muscle fiber.
What is a limitation of Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) related to the human genome?
It arises from the repetitive nature of the human genome.
p.48
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What happens to the current as ssDNA transits the nanopore?
The detector records how the current changes.
p.31
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What is titin?
An elastic protein that anchors thick filaments between the Z line and M line.
p.66
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is Sanger Sequencing also known as?
Chain Termination Sequencing.
p.40
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What is the function of the Na+/K+ ATPase pump?
It establishes resting membrane potential.
p.41
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What role does the Na+/K+ ATPase pump play in muscle cells?
It maintains the resting membrane potential.
p.51
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is a key advantage of nanopore sequencing technology?
Its high speed and ability to handle long DNA molecules.
p.19
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What is the role of the limbic system in relation to the ANS?
Responsible for visceral responses that reflect emotional states.
p.65
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is used to hybridize with the DNA in the Sanger method?
A short DNA primer labeled with a fluorescent dye or radioisotope.
p.27
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What defines one sarcomere?
The area between two Z lines (Z disks).
p.64
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What does the sequence obtained from the gel represent?
It is complementary to the sequence of the original gray single-stranded DNA.
p.17
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
How do neurotransmitters diffuse in autonomic neuro-effector junctions compared to synaptic clefts?
Neurotransmitters diffuse over a greater area of the effector organ in neuro-effector junctions.
p.63
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
How is the base recorded when the fragment emits light?
The detector records the color and reports it as the corresponding base (e.g., G or A).
p.14
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
Which neurotransmitters are associated with the sympathetic nervous system?
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine.
p.52
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
How does SMRT sequencing read the DNA sequence in real time?
By identifying the nucleotide base bound to pyrophosphate as it is added to the growing strand.
p.38
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What occurs when contraction is turned off in terms of actin and myosin?
Actin and myosin can't bind with each other.
p.2
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
What are the two branches of the Autonomic Nervous System?
Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
p.47
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is released when dGTP is added, and what does it affect?
A hydrogen ion (H+) is released, changing the pH of the liquid in the well.
p.13
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
Which neurotransmitter has a higher affinity for α1 and α2 receptors?
Norepinephrine (NE) has a higher affinity than epinephrine (Epi).
p.57
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
How does the read length of SMRT Sequencing compare to Illumina reads?
SMRT reads are significantly longer at 20,000 bases compared to Illumina reads, which are between 100 and 200 bases.
p.55
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is a 'read' in the context of Illumina Sequencing?
The final sequence for each cluster.
p.3
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
How does the ANS contribute to homeostasis?
By regulating organs to maintain homeostasis.
p.62
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What advantage do nanopores provide in DNA sequencing?
Many long fragments of DNA can be determined simultaneously.
p.65
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What does the Sanger method produce?
Four sets of labeled DNA molecules.
p.26
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What is a myofibril?
A basic rod-like organelle of a muscle cell that contains many chains of parallel myofibrils.
p.53
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
How can reads from gDNA be aligned into continuous sequence information?
By comparison to a previously sequenced genome or by comparing overlapping sequences.
p.21
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What happens to the ciliary muscles when viewing a distant object?
They relax due to decrease/absence of parasympathetic stimulation.
p.63
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What happens to the DNA fragments as they pass through the laser?
The fluorophore at the 3' end emits a characteristic color of light for the base.
p.26
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What are the two types of myofilaments?
Thick filament (mainly composed of myosin protein) and thin filament (mainly composed of actin protein).
p.21
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What happens to the zonular fibers when viewing a distant object?
They tighten and pull tight on the lens.
p.27
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What is the function of the Z line in a sarcomere?
It serves as a network of interconnecting proteins attached to the ends of thin filaments.
p.65
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
How does the Sanger method determine the complete sequence of DNA?
By producing DNA copies that terminate at different points in the sequence.
p.51
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the benefit of assembling many nanopores in a small region?
Many long fragments of DNA sequence can be decoded simultaneously.
p.53
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the significance of read depth in sequencing?
Higher read depth increases confidence in identifying correct bases.
p.13
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
How many subtypes are there for β adrenergic receptors?
Three subtypes: β1, β2, and β3.
p.54
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What does each cluster on the flow cell represent?
One small segment of the whole genome.
p.2
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
What is the role of the sympathetic division?
It prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses.
p.23
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What is the primary feature of smooth muscle?
It is involuntary and controls the movement of hollow organs.
p.39
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What condition can botulinum toxin treat related to sweating?
Hyperhidrosis (excessive sweating).
p.5
Organization of Autonomic Nervous System
What does grey matter in the CNS contain?
Cell bodies and dendrites of neurons.
p.61
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What components are mixed into the emulsion during Emulsion PCR?
DNA polymerase, dNTPs, and PCR primers complementary to the adapter.
p.61
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
Why do the PCR components partition into the water droplets?
Because they are water soluble.
p.46
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is one method used to shear DNA during library preparation?
Ultrasonic disruption (Sonication).
p.19
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What systems does the medulla oblongata control?
Cardiovascular, pulmonary, urinary, reproductive, and digestive systems.
p.27
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What does the H zone represent in a sarcomere?
A light band in the middle of the A band, containing thick filaments only with no overlap.
p.15
Neuromuscular Junction and Acetylcholine
What is the role of the synapse in autonomic neuro-effector junctions?
It connects an efferent neuron to its effector organ.
p.17
Differences Between Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
What is a key structural difference between autonomic neuro-effector junctions and synaptic clefts?
Autonomic neuro-effector junctions involve varicosities, while synaptic clefts involve axon terminals.
p.40
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What does Myosin ATPase do?
It provides energy for muscle contraction.
p.17
Differences Between Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
How does the size of autonomic neuro-effector junctions compare to synaptic clefts?
Autonomic neuro-effector junctions are bigger, while synaptic clefts are smaller.
p.5
Organization of Autonomic Nervous System
What are the two types of neurons in the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)?
Pre ganglionic neurons and post ganglionic neurons.
p.52
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What are zero-mode waveguides?
Small nanosized metal cylindrical wells that reduce background light for visualization.
p.60
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the first step in Ion Torrent sequencing?
Fragmenting the gDNA sequence into millions of tiny double-stranded pieces (~300 – 800 bp).
p.35
Neuromuscular Junction and Acetylcholine
What is the motor end plate?
The plasma membrane of the muscle fiber that lies under the axon terminal.
p.17
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What is the mechanism of neurotransmitter action in both neuro-effector junctions and synaptic clefts?
Both involve ligand (neurotransmitter) receptor binding.
p.37
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What initiates the mechanism of muscle contraction?
An action potential reaching the axon terminal of a motor neuron.
p.7
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
What special structure do sympathetic ganglia form?
Sympathetic trunk, which runs parallel to the spinal column.
p.29
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
How does troponin regulate muscle contraction?
Troponin binds to Ca2+ and moves the tropomyosin complex to expose the myosin binding site on actin.
p.13
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What is the affinity of β1 receptors for norepinephrine and epinephrine?
Norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine (Epi) have equal affinity.
p.61
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What does Emulsion PCR prevent?
Cross-contamination of PCR reactions between different beads.
p.57
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What occurs after the burst of color in SMRT Sequencing?
The fluorophore is washed away, and the next cycle begins.
p.61
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What happens to each bead after multiple PCR cycles?
Each bead becomes coated with thousands of copies of the original gDNA fragment.
p.8
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
What types of cells are found in the adrenal medulla?
Modified sympathetic postganglionic cells called chromaffin cells that develop into endocrine cells.
p.46
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is a sequencing library?
A pool of DNA fragments with adapters attached.
p.3
Differences Between Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
What is the difference between the motor control of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system?
The somatic nervous system innervates skeletal muscles for deliberate motion, while the ANS innervates smooth and cardiac muscles for involuntary motion.
p.32
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What is the role of transverse tubules (T-tubules) in muscle fibers?
They are tubular structures that are continuous with the plasma membrane and allow action potentials to propagate inside the muscle cell.
p.64
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
How can the bands in the gel be visualized?
With X-ray film (if labeled with radioactive isotope) or UV lamp (if labeled with fluorescence).
p.18
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What factors affect the release of norepinephrine (NE) from sympathetic neuron axons?
Frequency of action potential at the varicosity, amount of NE available for release, and other modulating factors.
p.63
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What technique is used to separate copies of target DNA in the provided text?
Capillary Electrophoresis.
p.26
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What are myofilaments?
The smaller parallel fiber structures that make up a myofibril.
p.11
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What type of receptors do postganglionic cells have for acetylcholine?
Nicotinic cholinergic receptors (AChR).
p.51
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is a notable feature of current nanopore detectors?
They are small enough to be carried everywhere.
p.18
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
Where are α-adrenergic receptors typically found?
In the presynaptic membrane.
p.64
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the significance of the green arrow in the context of the gel?
It indicates the DNA sequence of the newly synthesized strand.
p.18
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What is the impact of agonists and antagonists on NE release?
They modulate NE release.
p.57
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What are ZMWs in SMRT Sequencing?
ZMWs are nanocontainers where reactions are carried out, reducing background light for detecting individual nucleotide flashes.
p.35
Neuromuscular Junction and Acetylcholine
What role does the neuromuscular junction play in muscle contraction?
It facilitates communication between the neuron and muscle fiber to initiate contraction.
p.11
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What type of receptors do target cells have for acetylcholine in the parasympathetic system?
Muscarinic cholinergic receptors.
p.37
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What type of receptor does acetylcholine bind to at the neuromuscular junction?
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor.
p.29
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What triggers muscle contraction at the molecular level?
High Ca2+ concentration causes Ca2+ to bind to troponin, exposing the myosin binding site on actin.
p.46
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What must gDNA be in order to proceed with library preparation?
Pure and contain only the DNA portion of the sample.
p.37
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
Where is the ryanodine receptor (RyR) located?
On the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) membrane.
p.8
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What is the effect of catecholamines released into the bloodstream?
They cause widespread effects of sympathetic activation.
p.50
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What occurs when there are more than three identical nucleotides in a row in Ion Torrent sequencing?
The pH and voltage changes do not vary significantly, leading to potential sequencing errors.
p.18
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What role do auto receptors play in NE release?
They provide negative feedback control to conserve and stabilize NE concentration within the synaptic cleft.
p.23
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What are the three types of muscle tissues?
Skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle.
p.38
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What is the role of Ca2+ ATPase in muscle contraction?
It removes Ca2+ from the cytosol and transports it from the cytosol to the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR).
p.27
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What is the I band in a sarcomere?
A light band between the A bands of two sarcomeres, containing only thin filaments with no overlap.
p.38
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What happens to Ca2+ ions when muscle contraction is turned off?
Ca2+ ions leave troponin.
p.55
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What components are supplied to determine the sequence of gDNA fragments?
A sequencing primer, DNA polymerase, and fluorescently-labeled nucleotides.
p.39
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
How does botulinum toxin function at the neuromuscular junction?
It inhibits acetylcholine release.
p.63
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What format are the final results compiled into for analysis?
Sequence files in the form of a chromatogram.
p.51
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
In what scenarios does nanopore technology provide accurate enough data?
For resequencing or for quick analysis.
p.63
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the significance of different fluorophores for each base?
Each base has a different fluorophore that emits a unique color, allowing for identification.
p.7
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
How do sympathetic preganglionic neurons relate to postganglionic neurons?
They form synapses at the same level or send collaterals to other spinal levels.
p.47
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What does a voltage change recorded as a 1 or 0 signify?
A 1 means the nucleotide was added, and a 0 means it was not added.
p.2
Autonomic Nervous System Overview
What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system.
p.55
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
How many reads can be generated in a single flow cell?
Tens of millions of reads.
p.13
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
Are adrenergic receptors homogeneously distributed throughout tissues?
No, they are not homogeneously distributed.
p.8
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
What is the role of long preganglionic neurons in the SNS?
They innervate the adrenal medulla of the adrenal gland without synapsing with postganglionic neurons.
p.8
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What catecholamines are released by the adrenal medulla upon stimulation?
80% epinephrine, 20% norepinephrine, and a small amount of dopamine.
p.4
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What are some effects of sympathetic activation?
Raising heart rate, constricting blood vessels, and releasing glucose.
p.50
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the consequence of misinterpreting pH/voltage changes in Ion Torrent sequencing?
It can lead to sequencing errors.
p.51
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
How is the resulting sequence processed in nanopore sequencing?
The sequence is listed in real-time as data are processed.
p.35
Neuromuscular Junction and Acetylcholine
What is the neuromuscular junction?
The junction between the axon terminal and the motor end plate.
p.20
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
Which muscles are innervated by the sympathetic system for pupillary dilation?
Pupillary dilator muscles (radial muscles).
p.53
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is de novo sequencing?
Sequencing DNA from a species that does not have a reference genome using alignment of overlapping sequences.
p.47
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the first step in Ion Torrent Sequencing after emulsion PCR?
The oil is removed and each bead is partitioned into separate microwells on a semiconductor chip.
p.26
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What is a sarcomere?
The functional unit of myofibril that contains thick and thin filaments and forms a repeating pattern.
p.29
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What is the process of actin polymerization?
Actin monomers polymerize to form two strands that create a double helix.
p.7
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
Where do preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system originate?
From the lateral horn of the thoracic and lumbar spinal cord (T1 - L2).
p.47
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What happens when a specific dNTP, like dGTP, is added to the chip?
If a well contains a gDNA fragment with a C next to the primer, dGTP is added; otherwise, it is not.
p.55
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What role does the fluorophore play in the sequencing process?
It acts as a blocking group, preventing DNA polymerase from adding another nucleotide until removed.
p.14
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What type of muscle does acetylcholine affect?
Skeletal and smooth muscle.
p.12
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What are muscarinic cholinergic receptors coupled with?
G-proteins (Guanine nucleotide-binding proteins).
p.2
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
What is the role of the parasympathetic division?
It promotes 'rest and digest' functions.
p.29
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What happens to troponin and tropomyosin during muscle relaxation?
At low Ca2+ concentration, the complex blocks the actin-myosin binding site, leading to muscle relaxation.
p.12
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What effect does opening Na+/Ca2+ channels through muscarinic receptors have?
Depolarization and excitation (contraction of smooth muscles in the GI tract).
p.5
Organization of Autonomic Nervous System
What does white matter in the CNS consist of?
Tracts of myelinated axons.
p.7
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
How do parasympathetic preganglionic neurons relate to postganglionic neurons?
They form synapses with short postganglionic neurons.
p.37
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What processes are allowed by the release of Ca2+ during muscle contraction?
Cross-bridge cycle and filament sliding in the sarcomere, leading to muscle contraction.
p.4
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What is the role of dual innervation in visceral organ control?
It ensures precise control over the activity of the visceral organ.
p.29
Muscle Tissue Types and Functions
What are the three major proteins of thin filaments?
Actin, Tropomyosin, and Troponin.
p.14
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What are the two types of receptors for acetylcholine?
Nicotinic and Muscarinic.
p.2
Autonomic Nervous System Overview
What is the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)?
A division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary physiological processes.
p.39
Applications of DNA Sequencing Technologies
What type of protein is botulinum toxin?
A neurotoxic protein from the bacteria Clostridium botulinum.
p.54
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What happens after the gDNA fragments attach to the flow cell?
PCR amplification occurs to create a cluster.
p.5
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What is the role of neurotransmitters in the ANS?
They can be excitatory or inhibitory depending on the receptors.
p.29
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What does tropomyosin do in muscle fibers?
Tropomyosin covers the active site on actin to prevent actin-myosin binding.
p.55
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
How does DNA polymerase add nucleotides during sequencing?
It adds the complementary fluorescently-labeled nucleotide to the gDNA and connects it to the end of the primer.
p.47
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
How do semiconductor chips detect nucleotide addition?
They have miniature pH meters that measure the release of H+ during phosphodiester bond formation.
p.7
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
Where do preganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic nervous system originate?
From brainstem nuclei (CN III, VII, IX, X) and the sacral spinal cord (S2 - S4).
p.46
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the first step in library preparation for NGS?
Isolate gDNA from a sample (e.g., tissue or blood).
p.47
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the process repeated until the gDNA has been sequenced?
Adding remaining dNTPs, recording data, and washing away excess dNTPs.
p.2
Differences Between Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
What is the somatic nervous system responsible for?
Voluntary control of skeletal muscles.
p.46
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the purpose of using Tn5 transposase in library preparation?
To cut chromosomes into small fragments and tag the ends with adapters.
p.52
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
How do zero-mode waveguides enhance the visualization process in SMRT sequencing?
They allow only a small portion of the cylinder to be visualized for fluorescent light flashes.
p.47
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is added to each well during the sequencing process?
DNA polymerase and a sequencing primer.
p.6
Differences Between Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
What type of muscle does the autonomic nervous system inhibit or excite?
Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, or glandular secretion.
p.65
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What happens to the DNA during the Sanger sequencing process?
It is divided into four reaction tubes, each receiving a different ddNTP.
p.57
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
How does SMRT Sequencing avoid accumulating tags on DNA?
By attaching the fluorophore to the discarded pyrophosphate group instead of the incoming nucleotide.
p.52
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the length of the DNA template that can be used in SMRT sequencing?
Tens of thousands of bases in length.
p.60
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is the significance of the microbeads in Ion Torrent sequencing?
Each microbead is coated with a complementary oligonucleotide to the fragment’s adapter sequence, allowing for the attachment of only one DNA fragment per bead.
p.12
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What effect does opening K+ channels through muscarinic receptors have?
Hyperpolarization and inhibition (decrease heart rate).
p.37
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What happens when the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor is activated?
It opens a ligand-gated Na+ ion channel, causing Na+ influx.
p.13
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What is the affinity of β3 receptors for norepinephrine and epinephrine?
Norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine (Epi) have equal affinity.
p.37
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What does the dihydropyridine receptor (DHP receptor) do?
Senses the action potential on the T-tubule membrane and relays information to the ryanodine receptor (RyR).
p.46
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What does ultrasonic disruption do to the DNA?
Breaks the molecular bonds holding the DNA backbone together.
p.46
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What is Tagmentation?
The process of cutting DNA and adding adapters using Tn5 transposase.
p.5
Differences Between Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
How does the somatic nervous system differ from the autonomic nervous system?
The somatic nervous system has one somatic motor neuron that extends from the CNS to skeletal muscle fibers and is always excitatory.
p.61
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
How are beads separated during Emulsion PCR?
By encapsulating them in small drops of liquid suspended in a solution of oil.
p.54
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What type of information does each cluster provide?
A small length of DNA sequence information.
p.13
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
Which neurotransmitter has a significantly higher affinity for β2 receptors?
Epinephrine (Epi) has a much higher affinity than norepinephrine (NE).
p.55
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
How does the computer identify the added nucleotide?
By the color of its fluorescence.
p.4
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
How do the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically interact?
They are usually activated reciprocally; when one division's activity increases, the other's decreases.
p.4
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
What is the primary function of the sympathetic division?
Fight or flight response.
p.55
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What happens after the fluorescence of the added nucleotide is recorded?
The fluorophore is removed, allowing DNA polymerase to add another complementary fluorescently-labeled nucleotide.
p.57
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
What happens during each extension reaction in SMRT Sequencing?
Each extension reaction gives a brief burst of color, indicating nucleotide incorporation.
p.39
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
What effect does botulinum toxin have on muscle contraction?
It weakens muscle contraction.
p.2
Autonomic Nervous System Overview
What does the sensory (afferent) division do?
Transmits sensory information to the central nervous system.
p.2
Autonomic Nervous System Overview
What does the motor (efferent) division do?
Transmits motor commands from the central nervous system to the body.
p.8
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
What are collateral ganglia?
Ganglia located within the abdominal cavity, such as aorticorenal, celiac, superior mesenteric, and inferior mesenteric ganglia, that are closer to the innervated organs.
p.4
Differences Between Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
Which organs receive only sympathetic nerve input?
Most blood vessels, sweat glands, and the adrenal medulla.
p.4
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What are some effects of parasympathetic activation?
Digesting food, expelling waste, and general maintenance.
p.14
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
What types of cells are affected by epinephrine and norepinephrine?
Cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and gland cells.
p.7
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
Where do parasympathetic ganglia typically terminate?
Near or within the effector organs.
p.8
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
What are the sympathetic trunks?
They are paravertebral ganglia that lie close to the spinal cord and form two chains of ganglia, one on each side of the cord.
p.46
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Techniques
Why are adapters added to the ends of DNA fragments?
To provide a place for sequencing primers to anneal and to attach to the flow cell.
p.4
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
What is dual innervation in the autonomic nervous system?
Both divisions of the ANS innervate most effector organs and function antagonistically.
