What is the most common type of cancer in men and women?
The most common type of cancer in men is prostate cancer, and in women, it is breast cancer.
What causes cervical cancer?
Cervical cancer arises in the epithelium of the cervix and is caused by certain strains of HPV.
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p.1
Epidemiology of Cancer

What is the most common type of cancer in men and women?

The most common type of cancer in men is prostate cancer, and in women, it is breast cancer.

p.1
Cervical Cancer Screening and Prevention

What causes cervical cancer?

Cervical cancer arises in the epithelium of the cervix and is caused by certain strains of HPV.

p.1
Colorectal Cancer Diagnosis and Trends

What is the gold standard screening test for colorectal cancer?

The gold standard screening test for colorectal cancer is colonoscopy.

p.1
Breast Cancer Risk Factors and Screening

What factors increase the risk of breast cancer?

Greater exposure to estrogen and obesity increase a woman's risk of developing breast cancer.

p.1
Environmental and Genetic Risk Factors for Cancer

What role do environmental factors play in cancer risk?

Environmental factors such as smoking, diet, alcohol consumption, and radiation exposure play a much bigger role than genetic factors.

p.1
Role of Cyclins and CDKs in Cell Cycle

What is the role of cyclins in the cell cycle?

Cyclins are regulatory proteins that activate cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) and are specific to each cell cycle phase.

p.7
Neoplasia: Characteristics and Types

What happens when both alleles of the RB1 gene are mutated?

When both alleles are mutated or deleted, it can lead to an early onset of retinoblastoma, as per the 2-Hit hypothesis.

p.5
Cell Cycle Phases and Regulation

What are the phases of the cell cycle?

The phases of the cell cycle are G1 (growth), S (synthesis), G2, M (mitosis), and G0.

p.4
Neoplasia: Characteristics and Types

What are the characteristics of poorly differentiated malignant tumors?

Poorly differentiated malignant tumors exhibit disorganized growth, nuclear pleomorphism and hyperchromasia, high nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio, high mitotic activity with atypical mitosis, invasion through the basement membrane or into local tissue, and metastatic potential.

p.6
Cell Cycle Checkpoints and Their Importance

What is the significance of CDK inhibitors (CDKI)?

CDK inhibitors (CDKI) are endogenous inhibitors of CDKs and CDK/cyclin complexes, playing a role in regulating the cell cycle.

p.4
Neoplasia: Characteristics and Types

What is the defining feature of malignant tumors?

The defining feature of a malignant tumor is its ability to metastasize, or spread to distant sites of the body.

p.3
Epidemiology of Cancer

What is the deadliest cancer type?

Lung cancer is the deadliest cancer type.

p.5
Cell Cycle Checkpoints and Their Importance

What are the key checkpoints during the M phase of the cell cycle?

During the M phase, checkpoints ensure that the metaphase plate is aligned and that microtubules are in place.

p.7
Neoplasia: Characteristics and Types

What types of mutations can affect the RB gene?

Mutations affecting the RB gene can include deletions, insertions, and point mutations, which may result in no protein production or a non-functional version of the protein.

p.3
Epidemiology of Cancer

Which cancer is most diagnosed in males?

Prostate cancer is the most diagnosed cancer in males, followed by lung and colorectal cancers.

p.6
Cell Cycle Checkpoints and Their Importance

Which cyclin-CDK complexes regulate the G1 to S transition?

Cyclin D - CDK4, cyclin D - CDK6, and cyclin E - CDK2 kinase complexes regulate the G1 to S transition.

p.7
Neoplasia: Characteristics and Types

What role does the RB protein play in cancer susceptibility?

Mutated RB is associated with increased susceptibility to other cancers, such as osteosarcoma, neuroblastoma, and some types of brain cancers.

p.5
Role of Cyclins and CDKs in Cell Cycle

How do microtubule-targeting agents affect the cell cycle?

Microtubule-targeting agents activate the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) and disrupt microtubule dynamics, inducing prolonged mitotic arrest.

p.6
Cell Cycle Checkpoints and Their Importance

What is the role of cyclin B - CDK1 complex?

The cyclin B - CDK1 complex regulates the G2 to M phase of the cell cycle.

p.2
Cervical Cancer Screening and Prevention

What is the goal of cancer screening?

The goal of screening is to catch dysplasia before it becomes carcinoma and to detect carcinoma before clinical symptoms arise.

p.5
Cell Cycle Checkpoints and Their Importance

What checkpoints are present during the S phase of the cell cycle?

During the S phase, checkpoints ensure that DNA is replicated entirely, only once, and check if DNA repair is needed.

p.2
Role of Cyclins and CDKs in Cell Cycle

What is the function of CDKs in the cell cycle?

CDKs are enzymes activated by cyclins that phosphorylate proteins to drive the cell cycle forward.

p.4
Neoplasia: Characteristics and Types

What types of lung cancer are classified as epithelial cancers?

Epithelial cancers of the lung include squamous cell carcinoma, which undergoes squamous metaplasia from respiratory epithelium, and adenocarcinoma, which appears glandular.

p.5
Cell Cycle Phases and Regulation

What is the role of the G1 phase in the cell cycle?

In the G1 phase, the cell replicates its DNA and checks if proliferation is appropriate and if all machinery is ready for replication.

p.2
Cell Cycle Checkpoints and Their Importance

What is the role of Cyclin E in the cell cycle?

Cyclin E activates CDK2 and helps complete the G1/S transition.

p.2
Neoplasia: Characteristics and Types

What characterizes neoplastic tissue growth?

Neoplastic tissue growth is unregulated, irreversible, and monoclonal.

p.2
Epidemiology of Cancer

What are the most common cancers in adults by incidence?

The most common cancers by incidence are breast/prostate, lung, and colorectal.

p.3
Epidemiology of Cancer

What is the most diagnosed cancer in females?

Breast cancer is the most diagnosed cancer in females, followed by lung and colorectal cancers.

p.6
Cell Cycle Checkpoints and Their Importance

What role do cyclins and CDKs play in the cell cycle?

Cyclins and CDKs are major regulators that activate CDK-cyclin complexes, which phosphorylate and inactivate the Rb protein, driving cell cycle progression.

p.7
Cell Cycle Checkpoints and Their Importance

What are endogenous inhibitors of CDKs and give examples?

Endogenous inhibitors of CDKs include P16 (CDKN2A) and P21.

p.3
Epidemiology of Cancer

How does age affect cancer incidence rates?

Cancer is a disease of aging, and incidence rates for cancer climb steadily as age increases.

p.5
Cell Cycle Checkpoints and Their Importance

What is the function of the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC)?

The SAC delays chromosome segregation until all chromosomes are correctly attached to the mitotic spindle.

p.2
Cell Cycle Checkpoints and Their Importance

What does the G1/S checkpoint ensure?

The G1/S checkpoint ensures there is no DNA damage before replication.

p.6
Cell Cycle Phases and Regulation

What are labile cells and where are they commonly found?

Labile cells are often inside the cell cycle and are found in tissues that require constant cellular production, such as bone marrow, skin, hair, and GI epithelium.

p.7
Cell Cycle Checkpoints and Their Importance

How does the RB1 gene regulate the cell cycle?

The RB1 gene encodes the retinoblastoma protein (Rb), which prevents cells from entering the S phase by inhibiting the E2F family of transcription factors.

p.6
Cell Cycle Phases and Regulation

What characterizes stable cells?

Stable cells are arrested in G0 but can enter the cell cycle when needed, such as parenchymal cells for liver regeneration.

p.6
Cell Cycle Checkpoints and Their Importance

How does hyper-phosphorylated Rb affect E2F?

Hyper-phosphorylated Rb can no longer bind E2F, leading to the release of E2F, which activates genes in DNA synthesis during the S phase.

p.4
Neoplasia: Characteristics and Types

What are the characteristics of benign tumors?

Benign tumors are usually well differentiated and exhibit organized growth, uniform nuclei, low nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio, minimal mitotic activity, lack of invasion, and no metastatic potential.

p.5
Cell Cycle Phases and Regulation

What preparations occur during the G2 phase of the cell cycle?

In the G2 phase, the cell prepares for division by doubling the cytoplasm and organelles, while also checking for sufficient cytoplasm and organelles and performing a final DNA check.

p.2
Cell Cycle Checkpoints and Their Importance

What is the significance of the G2/M checkpoint?

The G2/M checkpoint ensures that all DNA is replicated before mitosis begins.

p.4
Neoplasia: Characteristics and Types

What are the types of neuroendocrine cancers in lung cancer?

Neuroendocrine cancers in lung cancer include carcinoid, small cell carcinoma, and large cell carcinoma.

p.2
Cell Cycle Checkpoints and Their Importance

Which cyclin regulates the S phase and G2 phase?

Cyclin A regulates the S phase and G2 phase.

p.1
Cell Cycle Phases and Regulation

What occurs during the M Phase of the cell cycle?

During the M Phase, DNA condenses into chromosomes and separates into two daughter cells, followed by cytokinesis.

p.2
Neoplasia: Characteristics and Types

How can clonality of neoplastic cells be determined?

Clonality can be determined by G6PD isoforms or androgen receptor isoforms.

p.6
Cell Cycle Phases and Regulation

What are permanent cells and give examples?

Permanent cells do not re-enter the cell cycle and have differentiated, such as neurons and cardiac muscle.

p.2
Cell Cycle Checkpoints and Their Importance

What does the spindle checkpoint (M checkpoint) verify?

The spindle checkpoint ensures that chromosomes are attached to spindle microtubules before separating.

p.2
Neoplasia: Characteristics and Types

What occurs during prophase in mitosis?

During prophase, DNA condenses into chromosomes, with sister chromatids linked by centromeres.

p.2
Epidemiology of Cancer

What is the second leading cause of death in both adults and children?

Cancer is the second leading cause of death in both adults and children.

p.2
Neoplasia: Characteristics and Types

What distinguishes benign tumors from malignant tumors?

Benign tumors remain localized and do not metastasize, while malignant tumors invade locally and have the potential to metastasize.

p.3
Neoplasia: Characteristics and Types

What is metaplasia?

Metaplasia is the replacement of one cell type by another, often as an adaptation to chronic tissue damage.

p.3
Neoplasia: Characteristics and Types

What characterizes dysplasia?

Dysplasia is characterized by disordered growth of non-neoplastic epithelial cells, with morphologic changes like pleomorphism and hyperchromatic nuclei.

p.3
Neoplasia: Characteristics and Types

Are metaplasia and dysplasia reversible?

Both metaplasia and dysplasia are reversible but can precede cancer in some cases.

p.3
Neoplasia: Characteristics and Types

What is carcinoma in situ?

Carcinoma in situ is severe dysplasia that is (pre)malignant, confined to the region, with no invasion of the basement membrane.

p.3
Neoplasia: Characteristics and Types

What are some tumor origins?

Tumor origins can include epithelial, mesenchymal, lymph node, bone marrow, and melanocytes.

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