p.1
Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy
What is the focus of Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy?
The study of how to effectively use antimicrobial agents to treat infections.
p.1
Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy
Which university offers the Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy course?
Kütahya Health Science University.
p.2
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What types of organisms are targeted by chemotherapy?
Microorganisms and parasites.
p.2
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
Name some types of microorganisms targeted by chemotherapy.
Bacteria, fungi, chlamydia, rickettsia, amoeba, plasmodium, leishmania, protozoa, helminth, virus.
p.15
Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy
What biochemical differences are important in chemotherapy?
Differences between microorganisms and mammalian cells.
p.10
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What type of agents are used against parasites?
Antiparasitic agents (including antiprotozoal and antihelminthic).
p.61
Antimicrobial Resistance
How can immunodeficiency contribute to treatment failure?
It weakens the immune response, making infections harder to treat.
p.65
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
In what context is chemoprophylaxis used to prevent postoperative infections?
During surgical intervention related events.
p.21
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
How are antimicrobial agents classified according to their chemical structure?
Into sulfonamides and diaminopyrimidines, among others.
p.69
Adverse Effects of Antimicrobial Drugs
What is a positive Coombs test indicative of?
It indicates hemolytic anemia.
p.14
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the mechanism of action of antisense antibiotics?
They inhibit gene expression in bacteria in a sequence-specific manner.
p.11
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What are antibiotics?
Substances produced by microorganisms that stop or kill the growth of other microorganisms.
p.11
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What are synthetic antibacterial drugs?
Drugs like sulfonamides and quinolones that are artificially created to combat bacteria.
p.65
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What type of infections does chemoprophylaxis aim to prevent?
Secondary bacterial infections.
p.63
Antimicrobial Resistance
What does infection with persistent or dormant bacteria imply?
Infections caused by bacteria that can survive in a dormant state, making them difficult to eradicate with standard treatments.
p.50
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What type of spectrum is often used in empiric treatment?
Broader spectrum antibiotics.
p.43
Antimicrobial Resistance
In the context of tolerance, what happens to the MBC when testing staphylococci and streptococci with penicillin?
The MBC increases, requiring a much higher concentration of penicillin to kill the bacteria.
p.19
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the antimicrobial spectrum?
The range of different microorganisms that are sensitive to an antimicrobial agent.
p.6
History of Chemotherapy
Who is K. Erol?
A person associated with the date 9/9/24, possibly an author or researcher.
p.4
History of Chemotherapy
Who discovered penicillin and in what year?
Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928.
p.21
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What are sulfonamides?
A class of antimicrobial agents including sulfadiazine, dapsone, and p-amino salicylic acid (PAS).
p.70
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
What is the significance of the therapeutic index in this context?
It compares the safety of Penicillins and cephalosporins to aminoglycosides.
p.59
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What are drug-related reasons for treatment failure?
Issues such as incorrect dosage, drug interactions, or inadequate drug formulation.
p.66
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
How does prophylaxis help with acute glomerulonephritis?
It helps in preventing recurrence.
p.66
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
In what situations can prophylaxis be beneficial due to immunological failures?
In cases of natural and iatrogenic immunological failures.
p.11
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What types of microorganisms can produce antibiotics?
Bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes.
p.8
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is a pharmacophore?
The chemical structure of a molecule that is responsible for its biological activity.
p.63
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is resistance development during treatment?
The process by which microorganisms become less susceptible to antimicrobial agents during therapy.
p.64
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is a challenge in treating infections located in certain areas of the body?
Infections in places where drugs cannot penetrate.
p.62
Antimicrobial Resistance
What factors can contribute to reduced drug absorption?
Various factors that affect drug absorption.
p.52
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What might necessitate Post-treatment Suppressive Therapy?
An immunological or anatomical defect.
p.34
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the mechanism of action of Rifamycins?
They inhibit RNA polymerase, disrupting mRNA synthesis.
p.16
Bactericidal vs Bacteriostatic Agents
Name two examples of bacteriostatic agents.
Tetracyclines and chloramphenicol.
p.8
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What does the spectrum of antibiotics refer to?
The range of microorganisms that antibiotics can affect.
p.48
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What types of agents are used in primary prophylaxis?
Specific antiparasitic, antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal agents.
p.22
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What are the four main types of beta-lactams?
Penicillins, Cephalosporins, Monobactams, and Carbapenems.
p.64
Antimicrobial Resistance
What type of bacteria is associated with difficult-to-treat infections due to their resistance?
Multiresistant Gram-negative bacilli.
p.50
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What is important to consider in empiric treatment?
The specific causative organism and its susceptibility in that patient.
p.64
Antimicrobial Resistance
What type of infections are commonly associated with the use of catheters?
Catheter-related infections.
p.31
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the composition of the murein layer in gram-positive bacteria?
It has a layer of 50-100 peptidoglycan molecules.
p.13
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is one mechanism of action for antimicrobial agents?
Inhibition of cell wall synthesis.
p.35
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the role of folic acid antimetabolites in intermediary metabolism?
They inhibit the synthesis of folic acid, which is essential for DNA synthesis.
p.38
Antimicrobial Resistance
How can resistance develop in bacteria?
Through long-term treatment (e.g., tuberculosis) or short-term treatment (e.g., P. aeruginosa, Serratia infections).
p.42
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is transformation in the context of genetic transfer?
The uptake of free DNA from the environment by a bacterium.
p.6
History of Chemotherapy
What does the number 6 signify in this context?
It could refer to a specific classification, level, or category related to K. Erol's work.
p.15
Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy
Why is DNA and mRNA synthesis considered less selective?
Because it can affect both microorganisms and host cells.
p.70
Selection and Use of Antimicrobial Agents
What are the routes of administration mentioned for the drugs?
P.O. (oral) and parenteral.
p.70
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
Which classes of antibiotics are mentioned?
Aminoglycosides, some Penicillins, and cephalosporins.
p.58
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
What is the tissue sharing (partition) coefficient in pharmacokinetics?
It describes how a drug distributes between different tissues.
p.43
Antimicrobial Resistance
What does an increase in the MBC/MIC ratio indicate in antimicrobial drugs?
It indicates tolerance, where MBC increases while MIC remains unchanged.
p.45
Antimicrobial Resistance
What does it mean when a drug is in vivo ineffective but in vitro effective?
It means the drug works in laboratory tests but fails to work in a living organism.
p.47
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What is the significance of the number 47 in the context of treatment?
It may refer to a specific case number or identifier.
p.56
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What types of inhibitors are mentioned in relation to the postantibiotic effect?
Protein and DNA synthesis inhibitors.
p.8
Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy
What are the main types of pathogens in medical importance?
Bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.
p.4
History of Chemotherapy
What significant development in antimicrobial therapy occurred in 1910?
Erlich introduced dyes like Trypan blue and Salvarsan for treating trypanosomiasis and syphilis.
p.61
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is one reason for patient-related failure in treatment?
Insufficient bioavailability.
p.65
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What is perioperative prophylaxis?
Prevention of infections during the perioperative period.
p.65
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What is preoperative prophylaxis?
Prevention of infections before surgical procedures.
p.64
Antimicrobial Resistance
What can lead to difficult-to-treat infections due to ineffective prior interventions?
Failure of previous treatments.
p.19
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
Which antimicrobial agents are mentioned in relation to concentration?
Fosfomycin and nalidixic acid.
p.32
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is one effect of increasing cytoplasmic membrane permeability?
It allows substances like amino acids, nucleotides, and potassium to enter or exit the cell.
p.39
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is chromosomal resistance?
Mutational changes in the bacterial chromosome that alter sensitivity to antibacterial drugs.
p.49
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What is the duration of pre-emptive treatment?
It is short and definite.
p.31
Bactericidal vs Bacteriostatic Agents
What is the effect of antibiotics on developing and reproducing bacteria?
They have a bactericidal effect.
p.15
Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy
What is the principle of selectivity in chemotherapy?
Maximize effect on microorganisms while minimizing effect on the host.
p.61
Antimicrobial Resistance
What type of infection can occur around prostheses and foreign bodies?
Infection around prosthesis and foreign body.
p.48
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What is primary prophylaxis?
Preventive treatment to reduce the risk of infections in immunocompromised individuals.
p.48
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
In which conditions is primary prophylaxis particularly important?
HIV-AIDS, solid organ transplantation, and when using immunosuppressants.
p.22
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What are two examples of tetracyclines?
Oxytetracycline and doxycycline.
p.63
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is superinfection?
The development of a new infection during or after treatment for an existing infection, often due to antibiotic use.
p.66
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What is one advantage of prophylaxis in heart catheterization?
Prevention of infections during the procedure.
p.60
Antimicrobial Resistance
What can lead to a wrong diagnosis in treatment?
Misinterpretation of symptoms or inadequate testing.
p.60
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is a potential reason for pseudo failure related to disease?
Occurrence of a secondary disease.
p.44
Antimicrobial Resistance
What type of drugs may be used as a result of antimicrobial resistance?
Expensive, more toxic, and new drugs.
p.31
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
How many peptidoglycan molecules are present in the murein layer of gram-negative bacteria?
1-2 peptidoglycan molecules.
p.29
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the mechanism of action for beta-lactams?
Inhibition of cell wall synthesis.
p.35
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What are sulfonamides used for?
They are used as antimicrobial agents that inhibit bacterial growth by blocking folate synthesis.
p.16
Bactericidal vs Bacteriostatic Agents
Name two examples of bactericidal agents.
Penicillins and cephalosporins.
p.31
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What happens if the bacterial cell wall cannot form?
The bacteria cannot survive or reproduce.
p.39
Antimicrobial Resistance
Give an example of cross resistance.
Resistance between oxytetracycline and doxycycline or tetracycline and chloramphenicol.
p.9
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What do microbial proteins serve as in the context of pharmacophores?
They are the targets for the active chemical moiety of the drug.
p.64
Antimicrobial Resistance
What type of patients are particularly at risk for difficult-to-treat infections?
Immunocompromised patients.
p.36
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is Zidovudine used for?
It is an antiviral that inhibits viral enzymes necessary for DNA synthesis.
p.23
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is one mechanism of action of antimicrobial agents?
Inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis and activation of lytic enzymes.
p.23
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
How do some antimicrobial agents affect the cell membrane?
They disrupt its permeability.
p.23
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What do certain antimicrobial agents inhibit to affect protein synthesis?
They inhibit protein synthesis.
p.45
Antimicrobial Resistance
How can combined chemotherapeutic use impact resistance rates?
It may reduce the rate of resistance, as seen in Tuberculosis and AIDS.
p.39
Antimicrobial Resistance
What are plasmids?
Non-chromosomal elements in bacteria that contain sequenced genes.
p.32
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the role of detergents in relation to cytoplasmic membranes?
Detergents increase the permeability of cytoplasmic membranes.
p.37
Antimicrobial Resistance
What are the two types of β-lactamases?
Structural and inducible β-lactamases.
p.18
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
What does MIC 90 represent?
The inhibitory drug concentration of 90% of strains.
p.68
Adverse Effects of Antimicrobial Drugs
What is local phlebitis?
Inflammation of a vein, often due to intravenous drug administration.
p.9
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
How do pharmacophores interfere with microorganisms?
By interfering with physiological pathways, inhibiting replication or directly killing microorganisms.
p.8
Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy
What is the role of antibiotics in medicine?
To treat infections caused by microorganisms.
p.8
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is a biochemical activity pathway?
A series of chemical reactions in a cell that antibiotics may target.
p.58
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
What does C ss max represent in pharmacokinetics?
Maximum plasma drug concentration at steady state.
p.58
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
What does t > Cp indicate in pharmacokinetics?
The time during which the plasma drug concentration remains above a certain limit for twenty-four hours.
p.48
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What should be considered in a risk-benefit analysis for prophylaxis?
The narrowest appropriate spectrum for the shortest duration to provide adequate protection.
p.63
Antimicrobial Resistance
What does tolerance refer to in the context of infections?
The ability of microorganisms to survive in the presence of antimicrobial agents without necessarily developing resistance.
p.59
Antimicrobial Resistance
What are microorganism-related reasons for treatment failure?
Factors like resistance to the drug, virulence, or the presence of biofilms that hinder treatment effectiveness.
p.60
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is pseudo failure in a medical context?
A situation where treatment appears ineffective due to various factors.
p.36
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the function of Vidarabin?
It is an antiviral that inhibits viral enzymes necessary for DNA synthesis.
p.44
Antimicrobial Resistance
What are the consequences of increasing the dose and prolonging the duration of treatment due to resistance?
Side effects and cost increases.
p.60
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is the significance of minimum duration in treatment?
If the minimum duration has not passed, treatment may seem ineffective.
p.49
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
How does pre-emptive treatment relate to primary prophylaxis?
It is similar to primary prophylaxis and targets early treatment.
p.39
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is non-chromosomal resistance?
Resistance acquired by bacteria through genes received from the environment or other bacteria, often via plasmids or transposons.
p.29
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is murein?
A component of bacterial cell walls.
p.41
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is a characteristic of multiple step mutations in resistance?
Penicillin-type mutations.
p.34
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is Nalidixic acid used for?
It is a Quinolone that inhibits DNA synthesis.
p.6
History of Chemotherapy
What is the significance of the date 9/9/24?
It may refer to a specific event or context related to K. Erol.
p.14
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
How do interferon-based products function?
By inducing specific antiviral activities of the infected human cells.
p.54
Selection and Use of Antimicrobial Agents
What are susceptibility tests used for?
To determine the effectiveness of antimicrobial agents against specific pathogens.
p.4
History of Chemotherapy
What is the significance of the year 1939 in antimicrobial history?
Florey worked with P. notatum to develop penicillin.
p.21
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
Name two examples of diaminopyrimidines.
Trimethoprim and pyrimethamine.
p.50
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What is empiric treatment?
Treatment initiated based on symptoms before definitive identification of the causative organism.
p.63
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is the inoculum effect?
The phenomenon where the effectiveness of an antimicrobial agent is influenced by the size of the bacterial population.
p.42
Antimicrobial Resistance
What are transposons?
Segments of DNA that can move within and between chromosomes and plasmids.
p.42
Antimicrobial Resistance
How are plasmids and transposons characterized in terms of transferability?
They are frequent and transferrable.
p.38
Antimicrobial Resistance
What are the two types of contact related to resistance?
In vitro and in vivo contact.
p.45
Antimicrobial Resistance
How can the frequency of resistant strains vary?
It may differ by countries, regions, and hospitals.
p.68
Adverse Effects of Antimicrobial Drugs
What are gastrointestinal disorders in relation to adverse effects?
They refer to complications affecting the digestive system.
p.41
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is a characteristic of single step mutations in resistance?
Streptomycin-type mutations.
p.68
Adverse Effects of Antimicrobial Drugs
Which antimicrobial agents are associated with renal injury?
Aminoglycosides and sulfonamides.
p.38
Antimicrobial Resistance
Which bacterial species are known for multiple resistance?
Resistant Enterobacteriaceae species.
p.15
Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy
How do penicillins demonstrate selectivity?
They specifically target bacterial cell walls.
p.4
History of Chemotherapy
What was the first sulfonamide introduced and by whom?
Prontosil was introduced by Domagk in 1932.
p.61
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is a complication that can lead to infection at the site?
Obstruction related to the infection site.
p.62
Antimicrobial Resistance
What can lead to the inactivation of a drug in the infection area?
Inactivation of the drug in the infection area.
p.36
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is Ganciclovir primarily used to treat?
It is an antiviral that inhibits viral enzymes necessary for DNA synthesis.
p.52
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What are some adjustments made in Post-treatment Suppressive Therapy?
Lower dose, different route of administration, or different antibiotic.
p.16
Bactericidal vs Bacteriostatic Agents
What is the primary action of bacteriostatics?
They prevent the development and reproduction of bacterial cells without killing them directly.
p.60
Adverse Effects of Antimicrobial Drugs
How can side effects of a drug mimic infection symptoms?
They can produce similar signs, leading to confusion in diagnosis.
p.34
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
Which enzymes do Quinolones target?
DNA gyrase and topoisomerase II.
p.69
Adverse Effects of Antimicrobial Drugs
Which drugs can cause anaphylactoid reactions?
Rifampin and Amphotericin B.
p.56
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
What is the significance of a short half-life (t 1/2) in antibiotics?
It indicates that the drug is rapidly eliminated from the body.
p.20
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the target spectrum of Penicillin G?
A limited number of gram-negative or positive cocci, gram-positive some bacilli, and spirochetes.
p.46
Antimicrobial Resistance
What should be restricted regarding the use of antibiotics?
Its use in animals should be restricted.
p.55
Selection and Use of Antimicrobial Agents
What is empirical selection in the context of chemotherapeutic drugs?
Choosing drugs based on experience and clinical judgment rather than specific tests.
p.5
History of Chemotherapy
Who discovered penicillin and in what year?
Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928.
p.5
History of Chemotherapy
What major contributions did Florey, Chain, and Abraham make in relation to penicillin?
They worked on its development in 1940 and 1941.
p.53
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
Where should antibiotics be present in effective concentrations?
In wastes such as feces, urine, sputum, and secretions like saliva, sweat, and bile.
p.9
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is a pharmacophore according to Ehrlich?
The active chemical moiety of the drug that binds to the microbial receptor.
p.11
Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy
What is the primary goal of chemotherapy?
To kill microorganisms or parasites without harming the host.
p.54
Selection and Use of Antimicrobial Agents
What does empirical selection of drug refer to?
Choosing an antimicrobial agent based on clinical experience and knowledge of likely pathogens before specific test results are available.
p.4
History of Chemotherapy
What was the role of Trefouel in the development of sulfonamides?
Trefouel worked on Prontosil, leading to the development of sulfanilamide in 1937.
p.70
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is a key consideration for treatment duration?
Complete eradication and resistance.
p.62
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is one reason for drug-related failure?
Reduced penetration to the activity site.
p.50
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
Why is a delay in treatment potentially harmful to the patient?
Because it can worsen the patient's condition.
p.64
Antimicrobial Resistance
What type of urinary infections are often difficult to treat?
Chronic urinary infections with multiresistant bacteria.
p.42
Antimicrobial Resistance
What are plasmids?
Non-chromosomal DNA fragments.
p.37
Antimicrobial Resistance
What are the two main types of antimicrobial resistance?
Natural and acquired resistance.
p.19
Antimicrobial Resistance
Can some strains of microorganisms be sensitive to antimicrobial agents?
Yes, some strains may be sensitive.
p.29
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is transpeptidation?
A process involved in cross-linking peptidoglycan layers in bacterial cell walls.
p.35
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What does PAS stand for in the context of antimicrobial agents?
Para-aminosalicylic acid.
p.41
Antimicrobial Resistance
How common are chromosomal mutations in resistance?
They are rare and intransferrable.
p.68
Adverse Effects of Antimicrobial Drugs
What is bone marrow depression in the context of adverse effects?
A condition where the bone marrow's ability to produce blood cells is reduced.
p.18
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
What does MBC stand for?
Minimal Bactericidal Concentration.
p.13
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What detoxification process is targeted in parasitic infections?
Parasitic chemical detoxification process.
p.5
History of Chemotherapy
What significant drug was developed by Klarer and Mietzhch between 1932-36?
Prontosil (sulfanilamide).
p.17
Bactericidal vs Bacteriostatic Agents
What is the action of Tetracyclines?
They are bacteriostatic agents that inhibit protein synthesis.
p.27
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What is Aztreonam used for?
Infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria.
p.65
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What is chemoprophylaxis?
Prevention of healthy individuals from possible infections.
p.58
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
What does AUC stand for in pharmacokinetics?
Area under the time concentration curve.
p.59
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What is pseudo failure in treatment?
A situation where treatment appears ineffective but may not be due to actual drug failure.
p.59
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What are patient-related reasons for treatment failure?
Factors such as non-compliance, underlying health conditions, or lifestyle choices that affect treatment outcomes.
p.50
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What can delay the definitive identification of the causative microorganism?
It can be delayed by at least 24 to 48 hours.
p.52
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What is the purpose of Post-treatment Suppressive Therapy?
To control an infection that is not completely eradicated.
p.49
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What is pre-emptive treatment?
Treatment that starts before symptoms appear in high-risk patients.
p.19
Antimicrobial Resistance
Can some strains of microorganisms be insensitive to antimicrobial agents?
Yes, some strains may be insensitive.
p.13
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
Which process is targeted by antimicrobial agents that affects cell membranes?
Inhibition of cell membrane synthesis and function.
p.42
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is conjugation?
A process where bacteria transfer genetic material through direct contact.
p.38
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is cross resistance?
A situation where bacteria develop resistance to multiple drugs due to exposure to one drug.
p.34
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What type of drug is Actinomycin D?
An antibiotic that disrupts DNA synthesis.
p.51
Selection and Use of Antimicrobial Agents
What factors should be considered for optimal drug selection?
Untoward effects, costs, practicality, and population-level antimicrobial resistance.
p.18
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
What is the definition of MIC?
The lowest concentration of drugs that inhibit the reproduction of bacteria in culture medium.
p.40
Antimicrobial Resistance
What does bypassing a metabolic pathway inhibited by a drug mean?
The organism finds an alternative route to continue its metabolism.
p.26
Bactericidal vs Bacteriostatic Agents
Which antibiotics are classified as bactericidal?
Cephalosporins, Vancomycin, Isoniazid, Rifampin, Ciprofloxacin, Cotrimoxazole.
p.53
Adverse Effects of Antimicrobial Drugs
What is a safety requirement for antibiotics in terms of side effects?
They should not cause significant side effects in high doses and long-term use.
p.17
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the mechanism of action of Rifampicin?
It inhibits bacterial RNA synthesis.
p.55
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What does the speed of bactericidal action refer to?
The rate at which a drug kills bacteria.
p.67
Adverse Effects of Antimicrobial Drugs
Which drugs are known to potentially cause psychic disorders?
INH, Cycloserine, and quinolones.
p.43
Antimicrobial Resistance
What MBC/MIC ratio indicates tolerance?
A ratio that rises above 32.
p.42
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is transduction?
A process by which DNA is transferred from one bacterium to another by a virus.
p.31
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What do antibiotics do to bacterial cell wall synthesis?
They disrupt the biochemical reactions related to the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall.
p.34
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the effect of Mitomycins on genetic material?
They inhibit DNA replication.
p.56
Antimicrobial Resistance
What role do leukocytes play in the media concerning antibiotics?
Leukocytes can influence the effectiveness of antibiotics in the media.
p.37
Antimicrobial Resistance
What are β-lactamases?
Enzymes produced by bacteria that provide resistance to β-lactam antibiotics.
p.46
Antimicrobial Resistance
What should be performed with bacteria isolated from the patient?
Sensitivity tests should be performed.
p.29
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What role do lytic enzymes (otolysines) play in bacterial cell wall synthesis?
They are activated to help break down the cell wall.
p.35
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the mechanism of action of ethambutol?
It inhibits the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall, specifically affecting mycobacteria.
p.18
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
What should plasma concentrations be in relation to MIC and MBC?
Plasma concentrations should be above the MIC and/or MBC.
p.30
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What are beta-lactamase inhibitors used for?
To protect beta-lactam antibiotics from being broken down by bacteria.
p.24
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the mechanism of action of Mebendazole?
It is used to treat helminthic infections.
p.2
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What are antibiotics primarily used to treat?
Bacterial and fungal infections.
p.56
Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy
What is the postantibiotic effect?
The continued suppression of bacterial growth after antibiotic exposure.
p.37
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is cross resistance?
A phenomenon where resistance to one antimicrobial agent confers resistance to another agent.
p.16
Bactericidal vs Bacteriostatic Agents
What is the primary action of bactericidal agents?
They are directly lethal to the bacterial cell.
p.51
Selection and Use of Antimicrobial Agents
What is required for definitive treatment in antimicrobial therapy?
Identification of the pathogen and availability of susceptibility results.
p.18
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
What does MIC stand for?
Minimal Inhibitory Concentration.
p.39
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is cross resistance?
Resistance formed in a microorganism against similar antimicrobial drugs or those acting by a similar mechanism.
p.49
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What is the significance of tests in pre-emptive treatment?
Tests may be positive even when no symptoms are present.
p.40
Antimicrobial Resistance
What role does P-glycoprotein play in drug resistance?
It facilitates the efflux of the drug from the cell.
p.51
Selection and Use of Antimicrobial Agents
Why is practicality important in drug selection?
It includes considerations like the number of doses administered per day.
p.40
Antimicrobial Resistance
What does reduced affinity of the target to the drug indicate?
The target site has changed, making the drug less effective.
p.55
Selection and Use of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the basis for the selection of chemotherapeutic drugs?
According to sensitivity tests.
p.53
Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy
What should happen to the effectiveness of antibiotics during the treatment period?
The effect should not decrease.
p.17
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What type of agent is Amphotericin B?
It is a fungicidal agent used to treat fungal infections.
p.5
History of Chemotherapy
Which antibiotics were discovered in 1952?
Erythromycin and vancomycin.
p.17
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the primary use of Metronidazole?
It is effective against anaerobic bacteria and certain parasites.
p.27
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What type of antibiotic are Macrolides?
Bacteriostatic antibiotics.
p.69
Adverse Effects of Antimicrobial Drugs
What are teratogenic effects?
Effects that can cause developmental abnormalities in a fetus.
p.60
Antimicrobial Resistance
What happens when a drug loses its activity?
It may lead to treatment failure or pseudo failure.
p.32
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
Name two classes of bactericidal agents mentioned.
Polymyxins and Imidazoles.
p.23
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What do some antiviral agents inhibit to prevent DNA synthesis?
Viral enzymes necessary for DNA synthesis.
p.68
Adverse Effects of Antimicrobial Drugs
Which drugs can cause liver injury?
Erythromycin estolate, INH, and rifampin.
p.40
Antimicrobial Resistance
How can the permeability of the cytoplasm membrane affect drug resistance?
Change in permeability can prevent drug entry (e.g., Tetracyclines).
p.51
Adverse Effects of Antimicrobial Drugs
What are some examples of untoward effects to consider in drug selection?
Toxicities or drug interactions.
p.30
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What are monobactams?
A class of beta-lactam antibiotics that includes Aztreonam.
p.30
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What does cycloserine inhibit?
Bacterial cell wall synthesis.
p.17
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What is Chloramphenicol used for?
It is a broad-spectrum bacteriostatic agent.
p.69
Adverse Effects of Antimicrobial Drugs
What is a Herxheimer reaction associated with?
Typhoid-chloramphenicol, syphilis-Pen-G, plague-streptomycin, and tuberculosis-INH.
p.37
Antimicrobial Resistance
What does an increase in MIC and MBC indicate?
It indicates a rise in resistance levels.
p.35
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the function of trimethoprim?
It inhibits dihydrofolate reductase, further blocking folate synthesis in bacteria.
p.32
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What are Azoles used for?
They are used as bactericidal agents.
p.53
Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy
What is a key characteristic of antibiotics regarding their spectrum?
They should be broad-spectrum.
p.30
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What are cephalosporins?
A class of beta-lactam antibiotics.
p.40
Antimicrobial Resistance
How can resistance elements affect the immune response?
They can alter the immune response, making it less effective.
p.53
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
What pharmacokinetic property is important for antibiotics?
They should show a rapid and continuous bactericidal effect in blood, extracellular fluids, tissues, and cerebrospinal fluid.
p.53
Selection and Use of Antimicrobial Agents
What is an important market consideration for antibiotics?
They should be easy to find and affordable.
p.46
Antimicrobial Resistance
When should antibacterials not be used?
In cases such as the common cold caused by viruses.
p.49
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
In which medical procedures is pre-emptive treatment commonly used?
Solid organ transplantation and hematopoietic stem cell transplants.
p.46
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is important regarding the dosage of antimicrobial drugs?
The drug should be used in sufficient doses and as soon as possible.
p.56
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
What does concentration fluctuation refer to in the context of antibiotics?
Variations in drug concentration can affect its efficacy.
p.34
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the primary action of Daunorubicin?
It disrupts DNA synthesis.
p.34
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the role of Metronidazole?
It disrupts DNA synthesis in anaerobic bacteria and protozoa.
p.18
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
What is the definition of MBC?
The lowest concentration of drugs that kill more than 99.9% of bacteria in culture medium.
p.40
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is the effect of overproduction of target enzymes in drug resistance?
It can outcompete the drug, reducing its effectiveness.
p.38
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is multiple resistance in bacteria?
The presence of more than one resistance gene in bacterial chromosomes, especially in plasmids.
p.13
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What role do topoisomerases play in antimicrobial action?
They are involved in chromosomal conformation changes.
p.35
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What is the primary use of INH?
Isoniazid (INH) is primarily used to treat tuberculosis.
p.46
Antimicrobial Resistance
Why is it important to monitor the prevalence of resistance?
To ensure effective treatment and understand local resistance patterns.
p.46
Antimicrobial Resistance
What type of antibiotics should be used if possible?
Narrow-spectrum antibiotics.
p.33
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the spectrum of antibacterial action for protein synthesis inhibitors?
They have a broad spectrum of antibacterial action.
p.27
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
Which class of antibiotics includes Tetracyclines?
Actinomycetes-derived antibiotics.
p.40
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is one mechanism of resistance related to drug concentration?
Low concentration in the activity site.
p.20
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What type of spectrum does Isoniazid target?
Narrow-spectrum, specifically mycobacteria.
p.17
Bactericidal vs Bacteriostatic Agents
What is the difference between bactericidal and bacteriostatic agents?
Bactericidal agents kill bacteria, while bacteriostatic agents inhibit bacterial growth.
p.5
History of Chemotherapy
Who discovered the Anthrax bacillus and in what year?
Pasteur and Joubert in 1877.
p.55
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the postantibiotic effect?
The continued suppression of bacterial growth after the antibiotic has been removed.
p.17
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What type of agent is Miconazole?
It is an antifungal agent.
p.51
Selection and Use of Antimicrobial Agents
What type of antibiotics are preferred in definitive treatment?
Narrower-spectrum antibiotics.
p.13
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What viral components can be targeted by specific antiviral agents?
Viral proteases, viral integrases, and viral envelope entry/fusion proteins.
p.30
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What are the main classes of bacterial cell wall synthesis inhibitors?
Beta-lactam antibiotics and others.
p.33
Bactericidal vs Bacteriostatic Agents
Are most protein synthesis inhibitors bacteriostatic or bactericidal?
Most are bacteriostatic, but some, like aminoglycosides, are bactericidal.
p.55
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
What should the death rate indicate regarding drug concentration?
The highest concentration of the drug in plasma with therapeutic doses should be 2 or more times the MIK 90.
p.30
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the mechanism of action of bacitracin?
Inhibits bacterial cell wall synthesis.
p.30
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is fosfomycin used for?
To treat urinary tract infections by inhibiting cell wall synthesis.
p.41
Antimicrobial Resistance
What effect does cell division have on resistance proliferation ability?
It decreases proliferation ability.
p.33
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is the primary action of protein synthesis inhibitors in bacterial ribosomes?
They inhibit protein synthesis.
p.34
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is Doxorubicin primarily used for?
It is an anthracycline antibiotic that inhibits DNA synthesis.
p.46
Antimicrobial Resistance
What principles should be followed in hospitals regarding antibiotic use?
There should be principles of antibiotic use in hospitals.
p.40
Antimicrobial Resistance
How can elimination of the drug-target complex contribute to resistance?
It prevents the drug from exerting its effect on the target.
p.53
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
What should happen to the antimicrobial power of antibiotics in bodily fluids?
It should not decrease in blood, plasma, tissue fluid, enzymes, germ products, and exudates.
p.17
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What type of antimicrobial agents are Fluoroquinolones?
Bactericidal agents that inhibit DNA gyrase.
p.17
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What type of antimicrobial agent are Sulfonamides?
Bacteriostatic agents that inhibit folic acid synthesis.
p.17
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What type of agent is Erythromycin?
It is a bacteriostatic agent that inhibits protein synthesis.
p.41
Antimicrobial Resistance
Which bacteria is associated with methicillin resistance?
Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus).
p.20
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is a disadvantage of broad-spectrum chemotherapeutics?
Superinfection and resistance.
p.20
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
List two broad-spectrum chemotherapeutics.
Chloramphenicol and Imipenem.
p.55
Chemoprophylaxis and Treatment Strategies
What factors are important in determining treatment effectiveness?
Dosage and duration of treatment.
p.40
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is a common mechanism by which bacteria can neutralize drugs?
Production of enzymes that break down drugs.
p.53
Antimicrobial Resistance
What is an important consideration regarding the development of resistance to antibiotics?
Rapid resistance should not develop.
p.17
Classification of Antimicrobial Agents
What is Vancomycin primarily used for?
It is a bactericidal agent effective against Gram-positive bacteria.
p.55
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Agents
What is determined to assess the effectiveness of serum in treatment?
Bacteriostatic and bactericidal activity.
