p.50
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
What happens in the fourth phase of prenatal neural development?
Axon Growth and Synapse Formation.
p.77
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
In which type of neuronal activity are electrical synapses particularly useful?
Reflexes and synchronized group activity of neurosecretory neurons.
p.63
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What is the first factor that influences the distribution of Na+ and K+ ions across the neural membrane?
Electrostatic pressure, where opposite charges attract.
p.36
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the primary function of the thalamus?
To act as a sensory relay for vision and hearing.
p.61
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What is the structure of the cell membrane?
A lipid bilayer with signal proteins and channel proteins embedded in it.
p.51
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
What structures are derived from the neural tube?
Ventricles and cerebral cortex.
p.34
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
Which structures are commonly associated with the limbic system?
Amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus.
p.18
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What are the main components of the cerebral cortex?
Superior, middle, and inferior gyri.
p.57
Developmental Neuroscience: Critical Periods and Teratogens
What was the effect of sensory deprivation on rats raised in the dark?
Fewer synapses and dendritic spines, leading to deficits in depth and pattern perception.
p.66
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What are postsynaptic potentials?
Changes in the membrane potential of a postsynaptic neuron.
p.55
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
Why are many neural circuits eliminated in newborns?
Because they are redundant and unused.
p.45
Functional Areas of the Brain: Motor and Sensory Cortices
What are topographic 'maps' in the cortex?
Representations of the body in the motor and somatosensory cortex.
p.67
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
How does the location of postsynaptic potentials affect their impact?
Potentials closer to the axon trigger zone have a bigger impact.
p.68
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What does 'all-or-none' mean in the context of Action Potentials?
It means that once the threshold is reached, the Action Potential will occur fully or not at all.
p.44
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What are the main functions of the Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)?
Executive functions, behavior control, memory, planning, reasoning, decision making, language, and other cognitive processes.
p.51
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
What does the Ectoderm develop into?
The nervous system, skin, eye, and inner ear.
p.45
Functional Areas of the Brain: Motor and Sensory Cortices
What are the two types of homunculus mentioned?
Motor and Somatosensory homunculus.
p.50
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
What is the first phase of prenatal neural development?
Induction of the 'Neural Plate'.
p.63
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
How does electrostatic pressure affect Na+ and K+ ions?
Na+ and K+ are attracted toward the negative charge inside the cell.
p.76
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What are neurotransmitters?
Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses between neurons.
p.58
Developmental Neuroscience: Critical Periods and Teratogens
What are some physical characteristics of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)?
Small head size, small eyes, thin upper lip, and malformation of the cerebellum, basal ganglia, and corpus callosum.
p.16
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the function of the pre-central gyrus?
It is associated with the motor 'homunculus'.
p.16
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What does the post-central gyrus represent?
It is associated with the somatosensory 'homunculus'.
p.41
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the role of the reticular formation?
It acts as an arousal system, specifically the reticular activating system.
p.61
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What does a resting membrane potential of -70 millivolts indicate?
The inside of the cell is 70 millivolts less than the outside, making the inside more negative and the outside more positive.
p.35
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What are the two additional structures involved in interhemispheric communication?
Anterior and posterior commissures.
p.67
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What is temporal summation?
The integration of two or more EPSPs or two or more IPSPs over time.
p.68
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
Where does the Action Potential begin?
At the Axon Initial Segment, close to the Axon Hillock.
p.44
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What areas does the frontal lobe contain?
Motor and higher-order association areas.
p.34
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the significance of the hippocampus in the limbic system?
It is crucial for the formation of new memories.
p.44
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the role of the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC)?
Involved in executive functions and cognitive processes.
p.37
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
Which types of sensory information does the thalamus process?
Visual, auditory, tactile, and gustatory information.
p.58
Developmental Neuroscience: Critical Periods and Teratogens
What developmental issues are associated with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)?
Slow development, poor coordination, impulsivity, and cognitive deficits.
p.2
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What does Part I of the outline cover?
The CNS and Brain cells, Principles of Neuroanatomy, and Brain Systems.
p.66
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What is depolarization in the context of postsynaptic potentials?
A decrease in the membrane potential, making it more positive.
p.9
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What are the types of neurons based on the number of projections from the cell body?
Unipolar, bipolar, multipolar, and interneurons.
p.47
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
Where is the primary auditory cortex located?
Within Heschl’s gyrus, buried within the lateral sulcus.
p.66
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What does 'graded' mean in relation to postsynaptic potentials?
Their amplitude is proportional to the intensity of the input; stronger stimuli produce bigger EPSPs and IPSPs.
p.59
Developmental Neuroscience: Critical Periods and Teratogens
What is Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)?
A condition resulting from alcohol exposure during pregnancy, leading to developmental issues.
p.78
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What does neuroanatomy study?
The structure and organization of the nervous system.
p.27
Blood-Brain Barrier and Its Implications
What type of evidence has emerged regarding SARS-CoV-2 and the CNS?
Emerging evidences have revealed that it can infect the CNS.
p.49
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
What is the focus of the section titled 'Brain Development'?
The processes and stages involved in the development of the brain.
p.67
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What is spatial summation?
The integration of two or more EPSPs, two or more IPSPs, or both.
p.58
Developmental Neuroscience: Critical Periods and Teratogens
When is exposure to teratogens particularly harmful?
During the first trimester of pregnancy.
p.74
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What happens to neurotransmitters after synthesis?
They are stored in vesicles.
p.46
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is Brodmann Area 17 known as?
Primary visual cortex (V1) or Striate cortex.
p.61
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What does membrane potential refer to?
The difference in electrical charge between the inside and the outside of the neuron.
p.37
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What role does the thalamus play in motor control?
It helps coordinate voluntary movements by relaying information from the cerebellum and basal ganglia.
p.24
Blood-Brain Barrier and Its Implications
What is the function of the circle of Willis?
It encircles the base of the brain and supplies arterial blood.
p.61
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What is a millivolt?
One thousandth of a volt.
p.26
Blood-Brain Barrier and Its Implications
What is the Blood-Brain Barrier?
A highly selective semipermeable border that separates circulating blood from the brain and extracellular fluid in the central nervous system.
p.54
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
What is synaptic pruning?
The process of eliminating excess synapses during childhood and adolescence.
p.24
Blood-Brain Barrier and Its Implications
What portion of the posterior cerebral artery is involved in the blood supply to the cortex?
A portion of the posterior cerebral artery contributes to the blood supply.
p.55
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What is synaptogenesis?
The formation of new synapses in the CNS.
p.19
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What are Brodmann's Areas?
Regions of the cortex demarcated by histological examination of cellular microanatomy.
p.67
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What is neural integration?
The process of combining multiple signals to generate action potentials.
p.45
Functional Areas of the Brain: Motor and Sensory Cortices
What does the homunculus represent?
The correspondence between cortical regions and body surface for somatosensory and motor processes.
p.34
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What is the primary function of the limbic system?
Regulating emotions and memory.
p.37
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the primary function of the thalamus?
To act as a relay station for sensory information.
p.34
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What role does the amygdala play in the limbic system?
It is involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and pleasure.
p.10
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the primary source of evidence for neurogenesis in the adult brain?
Most evidence comes from animal research.
p.16
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What are the four main brain lobes?
Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal.
p.25
Cerebrovascular Disorders: Stroke
What is a stroke?
A cerebrovascular disorder of sudden onset.
p.10
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
In which part of the brain has neuronal regeneration been observed in adult rats?
In the hippocampus, specifically the dentate gyrus.
p.65
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What is an Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)?
Depolarization of the inside of the neuron, making it less negative (e.g., from -70 to -60 mV).
p.65
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What effect do EPSPs have on neuron firing?
They increase the likelihood of neuron firing and starting an action potential.
p.57
Developmental Neuroscience: Critical Periods and Teratogens
What is the 'critical period for language' in humans?
A biological window for language acquisition.
p.44
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the Medial PFC also known as?
Anterior Cingulate Cortex.
p.66
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What is hyperpolarization?
An increase in the membrane potential, making it more negative.
p.57
Developmental Neuroscience: Critical Periods and Teratogens
What was the outcome for Genie, who was rescued at age 13?
She learned to pronounce only a few words and basic forms of non-verbal social communication.
p.65
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What effect do IPSPs have on neuron firing?
They decrease the likelihood of neuron firing and starting an action potential.
p.1
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What is the primary focus of Chapter 2 in 'Cognitive Neuroscience'?
The organization and functions of the nervous system.
p.55
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What happens during synapse elimination?
Unused neural circuits are eliminated in a newborn.
p.52
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
What do the alterations in the gross structure of the nervous system lead to?
They give rise to the organization of the adult brain and brainstem.
p.77
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What do gap junctions connect in electrical synapses?
The cytoplasms of two neurons.
p.64
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What happens when a neuron fires?
It releases neurotransmitters from its buttons into the synaptic cleft.
p.68
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What is an Action Potential (AP)?
A large, rapid reversal of the membrane potential, also known as 'neuronal firing', changing to +50 mV.
p.40
Functional Areas of the Brain: Motor and Sensory Cortices
What is the function of the lateral hemisphere of the cerebellum?
Responsible for planning and timing of movements.
p.58
Developmental Neuroscience: Critical Periods and Teratogens
What are teratogens?
Substances or stimuli that are harmful to the fetus in utero.
p.58
Developmental Neuroscience: Critical Periods and Teratogens
What substances can act as teratogens?
Drugs, alcohol, smoking, environmental toxins, viruses, radiation, and lead.
p.51
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
What forms after egg fertilization at about 21 days?
The multicellular blastula.
p.64
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What occurs if the threshold is reached in a neuron?
An Action Potential occurs.
p.41
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the myelencephalon part of the hindbrain?
It includes the medulla, which contains major ascending and descending tracts and small nuclei.
p.51
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
What are the three layers formed in the blastula?
Ectoderm, Mesoderm, and Endoderm.
p.63
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What is the second factor influencing ion distribution across the neural membrane?
Concentration gradient, which is the natural movement from high to low concentration.
p.48
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
How does the limbic system influence behavior?
By regulating emotional responses.
p.63
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What is the role of sodium-potassium pumps in ion distribution?
They actively move 3 Na+ ions out for every 2 K+ ions moved in.
p.44
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the function of the Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex (VLPFC)?
Involved in language and decision-making processes.
p.46
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
Where does the primary visual cortex (V1) extend?
From the occipital pole onto the medial surface of the hemisphere.
p.65
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What is an Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)?
Hyperpolarization of the inside of the neuron, making it more negative (e.g., from -70 to -75 mV).
p.43
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What system in the brain is involved in the regulation of autonomic functions?
The autonomic nervous system, which includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.
p.16
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
Name one of the major fissures in the brain.
Longitudinal Fissure, Central Fissure, or Lateral Fissure.
p.52
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
What series of changes does the embryo undergo during prenatal development?
The embryo goes through a series of folds, or flexures.
p.64
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What do neurotransmitters do after being released?
They bind with receptors of the next neuron.
p.10
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
Can new neurons be formed in the adult brain?
Yes, new neurons can be formed in the adult brain.
p.43
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What are the main systems in the brain responsible for processing sensory information?
The sensory systems, including visual, auditory, and somatosensory systems.
p.37
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
Where is the thalamus located?
In the brain, above the brainstem.
p.41
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What functions does the medulla relay?
Sensory and motor information between the brain and body, including sleep, attention, muscle tone, cardiac function, and respiration.
p.43
Functional Areas of the Brain: Motor and Sensory Cortices
What system in the brain is crucial for motor control?
The motor system, including the motor cortex and basal ganglia.
p.18
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the function of gyri in the cerebral cortex?
They increase the surface area for neural connections.
p.24
Blood-Brain Barrier and Its Implications
What arteries supply blood to the lateral aspect of the cortex?
Anterior, middle, and posterior cerebral arteries.
p.2
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What topics are included in Part II of the outline?
Brain Development, Action Potentials, Synapses, and Neurotransmitters.
p.76
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What is the role of glutamate in the brain?
Acts as the main excitatory neurotransmitter.
p.66
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What is the speed of transmission for postsynaptic potentials?
They are transmitted rapidly, traveling about 2 millimeters instantaneously.
p.21
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What are the meninges?
Three protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord.
p.26
Blood-Brain Barrier and Its Implications
What cells form the Blood-Brain Barrier?
Endothelial cells of the capillary wall, astrocyte end-feet, and pericytes embedded in the capillary basement membrane.
p.13
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the primary function of the neocortex?
It is involved in higher-order brain functions such as sensory perception, cognition, and motor commands.
p.40
Functional Areas of the Brain: Motor and Sensory Cortices
What are the primary functions of the cerebellum?
Maintenance of balance and posture, timing of motor movements, coordination of voluntary movements, learning sequential information, and cognitive functions.
p.5
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What is the primary function of neurons?
To transmit information throughout the nervous system.
p.5
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What role do glial cells play in the neural system?
They support and protect neurons.
p.36
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What part of the brain is the thalamus located in?
The diencephalon of the forebrain.
p.57
Developmental Neuroscience: Critical Periods and Teratogens
What type of research primarily informs our understanding of critical periods in neurodevelopment?
Mostly animal research on the development of sensory and motor systems.
p.48
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What types of emotions does the limbic system help process?
Basic emotions such as fear, pleasure, and anger.
p.50
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
What is the third phase of prenatal neural development?
Migration and Aggregation.
p.57
Developmental Neuroscience: Critical Periods and Teratogens
What are the effects of enriched environments on brain development?
Thicker cortex, more synapses, and dendritic spines.
p.37
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
How does the thalamus contribute to consciousness?
By regulating the flow of information to the cerebral cortex.
p.73
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What happens when a neurotransmitter binds to postsynaptic membrane receptors?
It changes the membrane potential.
p.69
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What are the two types of channels involved in the action potential?
Voltage-activated sodium and potassium channels.
p.66
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
How are postsynaptic potentials transmitted?
Decrementally, meaning they get weaker as they spread from their site of generation.
p.12
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What is gray matter primarily composed of?
Neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons.
p.11
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
Where are nuclei found in the CNS?
In subcortical and spinal structures.
p.39
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
Where is the pons located?
Between the brain and cerebellum.
p.75
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What functions is Dopamine involved in?
Attention, memory, reward, and behavior control.
p.40
Functional Areas of the Brain: Motor and Sensory Cortices
What role do the vermis and intermediate zone of the cerebellum play?
They integrate sensory and motor information to coordinate voluntary movements.
p.34
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
How does the limbic system influence behavior?
By processing emotions and forming memories that affect decision-making.
p.65
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What are postsynaptic potentials?
Changes in membrane polarization produced by presynaptic neurons releasing neurotransmitters.
p.61
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What is the primary function of the cell membrane?
It separates the interior from the exterior of the cell.
p.76
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What is the major function of serotonin?
Regulates mood, appetite, and sleep.
p.25
Cerebrovascular Disorders: Stroke
What is an infarct?
An area of dead or dying tissue.
p.54
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
What is synaptogenesis?
The formation of synapses, which varies by cortical area.
p.51
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
What is formed from the Ectoderm during development?
The neural plate, which becomes the neural tube.
p.53
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
What is the 'Proliferation Zone' in neuronal migration?
The ventricles where precursor cells proliferate.
p.11
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What does white matter consist of?
Axons, cell bodies, or glial cells.
p.70
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What distinguishes action potentials from IPSPs/EPSPs?
Action potentials are active, slower, and non-decremental.
p.12
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
Where is gray matter typically found in the brain?
On the surface of the brain, forming the cerebral cortex.
p.72
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What happens to the neurotransmitter after it is released?
It diffuses across the synaptic cleft.
p.12
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
Where is white matter typically located in the brain?
Beneath the gray matter, connecting different areas of the brain.
p.10
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What did Eriksson et al. (1998) study in humans?
Neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the sub-ventricular caudate.
p.74
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What role do autoreceptors play in neurotransmitter action?
They provide inhibitory feedback.
p.24
Blood-Brain Barrier and Its Implications
Which arteries contribute to the circle of Willis?
Right and left internal carotid arteries.
p.61
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What equipment is needed to record a membrane potential?
An intracellular microelectrode and an extracellular microelectrode.
p.75
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What can excessive Glutamate lead to?
Cell death, stroke, epilepsy, and neurodegenerative diseases.
p.54
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
What is dendritic branching?
The process by which neurons form new dendrites.
p.73
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What effect do inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) have on the membrane?
They hyperpolarize the membrane.
p.75
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What can result from too little GABA?
Seizures, heart issues, and blood pressure problems.
p.75
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
Where is Dopamine secreted from?
Adrenal glands and other parts of the brain.
p.78
Developmental Neuroscience: Critical Periods and Teratogens
What are critical periods in brain development?
Specific times during development when the brain is particularly receptive to certain stimuli.
p.8
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What are the two main types of neurons found in the CNS?
Sensory neurons and motor neurons.
p.39
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What type of neural tracts are present in the pons?
Neural tracts that ascend and descend.
p.15
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What are the major parts of the brain?
The cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.
p.21
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What does the pia mater do?
It closely adheres to the surface of the brain and spinal cord, providing support and nourishment.
p.56
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
What does 'egocentrism' refer to in toddlers?
A cognitive limitation where toddlers cannot see things from perspectives other than their own.
p.62
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What is the permeability of the resting membrane to Na+ ions?
The membrane is impermeable to Na+ ions.
p.29
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What role does the cerebellum play in the brain?
The cerebellum coordinates voluntary movements and maintains posture and balance.
p.23
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
Where are the lateral ventricles located?
In each hemisphere of the brain.
p.50
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
What is the final phase of prenatal neural development?
Neuronal Death and Synapse Rearrangement.
p.11
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What are the two main organizational structures of neurons in the Central Nervous System (CNS)?
Nuclei and cortical layers.
p.75
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What is the role of GABA in the nervous system?
It functions as a fast inhibitory neurotransmitter.
p.9
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What are interneurons?
Neurons that connect other neurons within the central nervous system.
p.39
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What functions does the cerebellum support?
Both sensorimotor and cognitive functions.
p.33
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What are the Basal Ganglia?
A group of nuclei in the brain involved in coordinating movement.
p.75
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What is the role of Adrenaline/Noradrenaline?
It is involved in the 'fight or flight' response and attention.
p.14
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What is the function of white matter in the spinal cord?
Conveys information from the brain down the spinal cord and from peripheral receptors to the brain.
p.17
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the main function of the occipital lobe?
Responsible for visual processing.
p.71
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What are dendro-dendritic synapses?
Synapses formed between the dendrites of two neurons.
p.73
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What are the two types of postsynaptic potentials?
Excitatory (EPSPs) and inhibitory (IPSPs).
p.76
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What is the primary function of GABA?
Acts as the main inhibitory neurotransmitter.
p.24
Blood-Brain Barrier and Its Implications
What are the branches of the anterior cerebral artery responsible for?
Supplying blood to specific regions of the brain.
p.69
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What happens during the action potential?
The opening and closing of voltage-activated sodium and potassium channels.
p.75
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What is the primary function of Serotonin?
Regulates mood, appetite, sleep, and memory.
p.8
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What is the function of motor neurons in the CNS?
To transmit signals from the brain to muscles and glands.
p.4
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What is the function of the Sympathetic System?
'Fight-or-flight' response; manages cortisol production via the HPA axis.
p.75
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What is the primary function of Glutamate?
It is an excitatory neurotransmitter and the most common one, released by pyramidal cells.
p.9
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What characterizes bipolar neurons?
They have two projections emanating from the cell body.
p.72
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What occurs after vesicles bind to the presynaptic membrane?
Neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft.
p.6
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What role do radial glial cells play during embryonic development?
They guide neuronal migration.
p.29
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the function of the cerebrum?
The cerebrum is responsible for higher brain functions, including thought, action, and sensory processing.
p.15
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What does the cerebellum control?
Coordination and balance.
p.71
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What are axo-somatic synapses?
Synapses formed between the axon of one neuron and the soma (cell body) of another.
p.74
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What is the sixth step in neurotransmitter action?
Activation of postsynaptic receptors.
p.78
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What are the main systems of the brain?
The limbic system, brainstem, and cerebral cortex.
p.22
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
Where does cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulate?
Through the ventricular system of the brain, the central canal of the spinal cord, and the subarachnoid space.
p.78
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
What are the stages of brain development?
Prenatal and post-natal development.
p.12
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What is the main function of gray matter?
Processing and integrating information.
p.15
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What are the main functions of the brain?
Regulating bodily functions, processing sensory information, and enabling cognition and emotions.
p.13
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the significance of the six layers in the neocortex?
Each layer has distinct types of neurons and connections, contributing to various functions.
p.78
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What are synapses?
The junctions where neurons communicate with each other.
p.17
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What functions are associated with the parietal lobe?
Processing sensory information and spatial awareness.
p.33
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
Which structures are included in the Basal Ganglia?
The caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus.
p.23
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What are ventricles in the context of the brain?
Cavities within the brain that produce and contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
p.33
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
How does the coronal view help in studying the Basal Ganglia?
It provides a clear perspective of their anatomical relationships and structures.
p.29
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the function of the brainstem?
The brainstem controls basic life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.
p.14
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Where do the cell bodies of peripheral sensory inputs reside?
In the dorsal-root ganglion.
p.42
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What is the role of the Vagus Nerve (X)?
Parasympathetic innervation.
p.54
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
When do sensory and motor areas become myelinated?
In the first few months after birth.
p.73
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What effect do excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) have on the membrane?
They depolarize the membrane.
p.9
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What characterizes unipolar neurons?
They have one projection emanating from the cell body.
p.72
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What happens when the action potential reaches the axon terminals?
It causes voltage-gated Ca2+ channels to open.
p.22
Blood-Brain Barrier and Its Implications
How is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) absorbed into the bloodstream?
It is absorbed into sinuses in the dura mater and then into the bloodstream.
p.21
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What are the three layers of the meninges?
Dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater.
p.72
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What triggers vesicles to bind to the presynaptic membrane?
The opening of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels.
p.26
Blood-Brain Barrier and Its Implications
Why is the Blood-Brain Barrier important for neural function?
It allows the selective transport of crucial molecules such as glucose, water, and amino acids.
p.6
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What is the primary function of glial cells?
To provide structural support and insulation for neurons.
p.78
Developmental Neuroscience: Critical Periods and Teratogens
What are teratogens?
Substances that can cause developmental malformations in a fetus.
p.70
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
How do action potentials travel along the axonal membrane?
From one sodium channel to the next.
p.33
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the primary function of the Basal Ganglia?
To regulate voluntary motor movements, procedural learning, and routine behaviors.
p.15
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the role of the cerebrum?
Involved in higher brain functions such as thought and action.
p.78
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What are the main neurotransmitters in the brain?
Dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, and acetylcholine.
p.71
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What are synaptic vesicles?
Small membrane-bound structures that contain neurotransmitters.
p.39
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What functions are associated with the pons?
Eye movements (REM), face, and mouth.
p.26
Blood-Brain Barrier and Its Implications
What types of molecules can pass through the Blood-Brain Barrier?
Some molecules by passive diffusion, and selectively transported molecules like glucose, water, and amino acids.
p.31
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What are gyri?
Ridges (hills) in the cortex.
p.28
Blood-Brain Barrier and Its Implications
What experimental method was used to open the blood-brain barrier?
Highly focused pulses of ultrasound along with tiny gas bubbles.
p.53
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
How is the cortex built during neuronal development?
From 'inside out', starting with the inside layers.
p.78
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What is neuronal transmission?
The process by which neurons communicate through action potentials.
p.75
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What is the function of Acetylcholine (Ach)?
Muscle excitation and supporting cognitive functions in the brain.
p.4
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What does the Central Nervous System (CNS) consist of?
The brain and spinal cord.
p.4
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What does the Sensory - Somatic Nervous System do?
Connects the brain to the world through sensory inputs and muscle outputs.
p.4
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What functions does the Autonomic Nervous System control?
Many involuntary functions such as heart rate, digestion, and blood vessel regulation.
p.4
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What does the Parasympathetic System do?
Settles the body down after a crisis.
p.74
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
How are neurotransmitters deactivated?
Through re-uptake or enzymatic degradation.
p.22
Cerebrovascular Disorders: Stroke
What produces cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
Choroid plexuses, which are capillary networks in the ventricles.
p.20
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What do Dorsal and Ventral refer to in brain orientation?
The upper (dorsal) and lower (ventral) parts of the brain.
p.12
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What is the main function of white matter?
Facilitating communication between different brain regions.
p.75
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What disorders are associated with Dopamine dysregulation?
Schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease, and ADHD.
p.21
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the function of the arachnoid mater?
It acts as a cushioning layer and contains cerebrospinal fluid.
p.17
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the primary function of the frontal lobe?
Involved in decision making, problem solving, and controlling behavior.
p.28
Blood-Brain Barrier and Its Implications
How many patients were involved in the early-stage experiment with Aduhelm?
Three patients with mild Alzheimer’s.
p.6
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What functions do astrocytes serve?
They provide oxygen and nutrients to neurons and may direct neurons on dendritic spine creation and synapse formation.
p.4
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What is the role of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?
Connects the brain to the world via senses and muscles.
p.62
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What allows ions to pass through the membrane when the potential changes?
Specific Na+ and K+ ion channels.
p.23
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What are the names of the four main ventricles?
Lateral ventricles, third ventricle, and fourth ventricle.
p.42
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What functions does the Accessory Nerve (XI) serve?
Shoulder elevation and head turning.
p.59
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is a notable difference in brain structure between individuals with FAS and healthy controls?
Differences in white matter tracts.
p.8
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What is the role of glial cells in the CNS?
To support and protect neurons.
p.62
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What is the distribution of charged ions in the resting membrane potential?
Positively and negatively charged ions are unequally distributed, with the inside being more negative than the outside.
p.31
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What are sulci?
Depressions in the cortex.
p.28
Blood-Brain Barrier and Its Implications
What was the result of opening the blood-brain barrier during the experiment?
32 percent more plaque was dissolved.
p.17
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the role of the temporal lobe?
Involved in processing auditory information and memory.
p.70
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What is Multiple Sclerosis?
An autoimmune disease where the immune system attacks cells in the brain and spinal cord.
p.23
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What connects the third ventricle to the lateral ventricles?
The interventricular foramen (foramen of Monro).
p.42
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What sensations does the Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX) provide?
Oral sensation, taste, and salivation.
p.59
Developmental Neuroscience: Critical Periods and Teratogens
What type of study was conducted by Wozniak et al. in 2019 regarding FAS?
Post-mortem brain analysis.
p.56
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
What are some higher cognitive abilities associated with the prefrontal cortex?
Working memory, decision making, planning, inhibiting inappropriate responses, and following social rules.
p.33
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the coronal view in neuroanatomy?
A vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior sections.
p.8
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What is the function of sensory neurons in the CNS?
To carry signals from sensory receptors to the brain.
p.71
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What are dendritic spines?
Small protrusions on a neuron's dendrite that receive synaptic inputs.
p.72
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What completes the process of synaptic transmission?
Binding of the neurotransmitter to receptor molecules in the postsynaptic membrane.
p.71
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What are axo-dendritic synapses?
Synapses formed between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another.
p.23
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What connects the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle?
The cerebral aqueduct (aqueduct of Sylvius).
p.17
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What are the four main lobes of the brain?
Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, and Occipital lobes.
p.56
Brain Development and Neurogenesis
What cognitive issue can result from damage to the prefrontal cortex?
Working memory problems and 'perseverative' errors.
p.70
Neural Signaling and Action Potentials
What is 'Saltatory Conduction'?
The process of action potentials jumping from one Node of Ranvier to the next in myelinated axons.
p.29
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What does the diencephalon consist of?
The diencephalon includes structures such as the thalamus and hypothalamus, which are involved in sensory and autonomic functions.
p.42
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
Which cranial nerves are responsible for eye movements?
Oculomotor (III), Trochlear (IV), and Abducens (VI) Nerves.
p.23
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the role of the fourth ventricle?
To connect the brainstem to the spinal cord and allow CSF to flow into the subarachnoid space.
p.78
Developmental Neuroscience: Critical Periods and Teratogens
What is Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)?
A condition resulting from alcohol exposure during pregnancy, leading to developmental issues.
p.31
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What are commissures?
Structures that connect the two hemispheres.
p.29
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What are the five main divisions of the brain?
The five divisions are the cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem, diencephalon, and limbic system.
p.8
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What is the significance of interneurons in the CNS?
They connect sensory and motor neurons and process information.
p.13
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the role of Layer V in the neocortex?
It is primarily involved in sending output to other brain regions.
p.15
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the function of the brainstem?
Controls basic life functions such as breathing and heart rate.
p.23
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the ventricles?
To cushion the brain, remove waste, and provide nutrients.
p.14
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What do the ventral horns of the spinal cord house?
Motor neurons that project their axons to innervate peripheral muscles.
p.71
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What is the synaptic cleft?
The small gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons.
p.71
Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
What is the function of the synaptic button?
It is the terminal part of the axon that releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
p.29
Neuroanatomy: Brain Lobes and Structures
What is the limbic system associated with?
The limbic system is associated with emotions, memory, and motivation.
p.42
Types of Neurons and Glial Cells
What is the primary function of the Trigeminal Nerve (V)?
Sensory information from the skin and face, and mastication.
