p.3
Characteristics of Archaebacteria
What features do archaebacteria represent?
A combination of prokaryotic and eukaryotic features.
p.29
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What do iron bacteria oxidize and what is produced in this process?
They oxidize ferrous compounds into ferric forms, releasing energy used in the synthesis of organic compounds.
p.21
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What are the two subgroups of autotrophs based on energy source?
Phototrophs and Chemotrophs.
p.42
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What are the four distinct regions recognized in an advanced foliose lichen?
Upper cortex, lower cortex, medulla, and algal layer.
p.24
Types of Archaebacteria: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermoacidophiles
What are four well-known examples of green sulfur bacteria?
Chlorobium, Prosthecochloris, Pelodictyon, and Clathrochloris.
p.19
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What shape do vibrios have?
Slightly curved rods resembling a comma.
p.42
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What is the internal structure of lichens composed of?
A combination of algal and fungal components.
p.3
Characteristics of Archaebacteria
Do archaebacteria have membrane-bound cell organelles?
No, they lack membrane-bound cell organelles.
p.54
Ecological Importance of Lichens
What role do lichens play in new terrains?
They are pioneer organisms that colonize bare rocks, cliffs, and mountains.
p.11
General Characteristics of Bacteria
Where are chlorophyll pigments located in bacteria?
Within involuted cytoplasmic membranes.
p.5
Types of Archaebacteria: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermoacidophiles
What are the three representative groups of Archaebacteria?
Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermoacidophilic bacteria.
p.4
Characteristics of Archaebacteria
What is a unique feature of the cell wall of archaebacteria?
It does not contain peptidoglycan.
p.5
Types of Archaebacteria: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermoacidophiles
Where do Methanogens typically inhabit?
Sewage swamps and the digestive tract of animals.
p.29
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What are iron bacteria and where do they form colonies?
Iron bacteria, such as Sphaerotilus and Ferrobacillus, form natural colonies in fresh water ponds and springs with high contents of reduced sulphur salts.
p.16
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What is the size range of cocci bacteria?
0.5 - 2.25 μm in diameter.
p.34
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What is the growth rate of lichens dependent on?
Both the species and the environmental conditions around them.
p.24
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What pigments do purple sulfur bacteria use for photosynthesis?
Bacteriochlorophyll a and/or b.
p.20
Morphological Types of Bacteria
Can a single bacterium exhibit more than one shape during its life cycle?
Yes, a single bacterium may occur in more than one shape in its life cycle.
p.24
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What provides the reducing power for purple sulfur bacteria?
H2S, which is oxidized anaerobically to sulfate.
p.28
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
How can chemoautotrophs be classified?
Based on substrate specificity.
p.24
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What other compounds can some purple sulfur bacteria use instead of H2S?
Thiosulfate, sulfite, etc.
p.54
Ecological Importance of Lichens
How do lichens contribute to soil formation?
They erode rocks and accumulate minerals and organic matter.
p.42
Lichens: Structure and Classification
Are there intercellular spaces between the hyphae in the upper cortex?
Usually no; if present, they are filled with gelatinous substances.
p.3
Characteristics of Archaebacteria
What is a key prokaryotic feature of archaebacteria?
Absence of organized nucleus with nuclear envelope, nucleolus, and organized chromosomes.
p.16
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What are spherical bacteria called?
Cocci (singular: coccus).
p.22
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What ability do photosynthetic bacteria share with higher plants?
They can convert radiant energy into chemical energy.
p.29
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What happens to the ferric iron produced by iron bacteria?
It is deposited as insoluble ferric hydroxide.
p.42
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What is the function of the upper cortex in lichens?
It serves as the outermost thick and protective zone of the thallus.
p.17
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What are micrococci?
Cocci that occur singly, such as Micrococcus cerolyticus, M. cyrophilus, and M. luteus.
p.12
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What are pili in gram-negative bacteria?
Minute hair-like cytoplasmic appendages extruding through the cell wall.
p.37
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What are the fungal components of lichens primarily classified as?
Basidiomycetes or Ascomycetes.
p.8
General Characteristics of Bacteria
How do bacteria reproduce?
Primarily through binary fission.
p.24
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What is the chemical equation representing the process involving green sulfur bacteria?
6 CO2 + 12 H2S → 12 (CH2O) + H2SO4.
p.20
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What does pleomorphic mean in the context of bacteria?
It refers to bacteria that can change their shape and size temporarily in response to environmental changes.
p.10
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What is the most common mode of nutrition for bacteria?
Heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
p.22
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What is the generalized reaction of photosynthesis in photosynthetic bacteria?
CO2 + 2 H2A → (CH2O) + H2O + 2A.
p.28
General Characteristics of Bacteria
Where do sulphur bacteria occur?
In sulphur-containing terrestrial and aquatic environments.
p.42
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What is the arrangement of hyphae in the upper cortex of lichens?
They are arranged at right angles to the surface of the thallus.
p.43
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What is the algal layer in lichens?
The algal layer occurs just below the upper cortex and is also known as the gonidial layer.
p.4
Characteristics of Archaebacteria
What genetic feature is present in archaebacteria but absent in prokaryotes?
Introns in the gene sequence.
p.1
Characteristics of Archaebacteria
Where can Archaebacteria typically be found?
In extreme environments such as hot springs, salt lakes, and deep-sea vents.
p.22
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What are photosynthetic bacteria also known as?
Photoautotrophic or photolithotrophic bacteria.
p.12
General Characteristics of Bacteria
Is true sexual reproduction present in bacteria?
No, true sexual reproduction is absent in bacteria.
p.3
Characteristics of Archaebacteria
What type of ribosomes do archaebacteria possess?
70 S ribosomes, which are typical of prokaryotes.
p.16
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What is the arrangement of cocci bacteria?
They often occur in chains or clusters of variable size and shapes.
p.19
Morphological Types of Bacteria
Name two examples of vibrios.
Vibrio coli and V. cholerae.
p.10
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What is the cellular structure of bacteria?
Unicellular and morphologically least complex.
p.28
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
How do sulphur bacteria derive energy?
By the oxidation of reduced sulphur compounds.
p.34
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What are lichens?
A small group of curious plants that resemble moss and grow on surfaces like rocks, trees, and walls.
p.34
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What two components make up lichens?
Algal and fungal components.
p.14
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What are the four common forms of bacteria?
Spherical, rod-like, curved, and spiral.
p.18
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What are spiral or helical bacteria also known as?
Spirilla (singular: spirillum).
p.52
Ecological Importance of Lichens
What is the process of fixing nitrogen?
Changing unusable nitrogen into a usable form.
p.45
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What are some common green and blue-green algae found in lichens?
Species of Protococcus, Pleurococcus, Cladophora, Trebauxia, Trentepohilia (Chlorophyceae), and Nostoc, Glococapsa, Rivularia (Myxophyceae).
p.11
General Characteristics of Bacteria
How do bacterial ribosomes compare to those of other organisms?
They sediment somewhat more slowly in a centrifuge.
p.2
Characteristics of Archaebacteria
Where do Archaebacteria typically inhabit?
Anaerobic environments, such as extremely saline, acidic, or hot environments.
p.45
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What is the medulla in lichens?
The central part of the thallus, comprised of loosely interwoven fungal hyphae with large spaces between them.
p.55
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What are viruses classified as?
Simple and acellular infectious agents.
p.46
Lichens: Structure and Classification
How does the internal structure of crustose lichens compare to foliose lichens?
It is more or less similar.
p.25
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What pigments do purple sulfur bacteria use for photosynthesis?
Bacteriochlorophyll a and/or b.
p.6
Types of Archaebacteria: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermoacidophiles
What are the nutritional requirements of methanogenic archaebacteria?
They have simple nutritional requirements and can be either autotrophs or forms that use a variety of carbon compounds.
p.7
Characteristics of Archaebacteria
What is the function of bacteriorhodopsin in archaebacteria?
It utilizes light energy for the production of ATP.
p.54
Ecological Importance of Lichens
What do lichens secrete to help dissolve rocks?
Organic acids such as carbonic acids.
p.13
Classification of Bacteria
What was the basis for the classification of bacteria in the first edition of the Manual published in 1923?
Phenotypic characterization.
p.52
Ecological Importance of Lichens
How do lichens contribute to soil formation?
By adding organic matter when they die.
p.50
Ecological Importance of Lichens
Why are lichens considered pollution indicators?
They are present in areas with low pollution levels.
p.27
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
In what conditions do chemoautotrophs grow?
In a strictly mineral medium and in the dark.
p.51
Ecological Importance of Lichens
How can scientists use lichens to assess air quality?
By extracting toxins from lichens to determine levels of air pollution.
p.6
Types of Archaebacteria: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermoacidophiles
Where do methanogenic bacteria occur and what do they produce?
They occur in waste disposal plants and produce methane (biogas).
p.26
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What occurs if there is greater oxidation of the substrate in non-sulfur purple bacteria?
CO₂ is given off, similar to respiration.
p.31
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What diseases can pathogenic bacteria cause in plants and animals?
Citrus canker in plants and pneumonia, typhoid in animals.
p.33
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What is the role of root nodule bacteria (Rhizobium)?
They fix atmospheric nitrogen to augment the nitrogen supply for leguminous plants.
p.38
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What is the fruiting body structure of Pyrenocarpeae?
A flask-shaped perithecium.
p.36
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What conditions can lichens survive?
High temperature and dry conditions.
p.3
Role of Archaebacteria in Evolution
What type of environment is believed to have existed before the emergence of life on Earth?
A highly anaerobic and warm environment.
p.21
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What are autotrophic bacteria?
Bacteria capable of synthesizing their food by themselves from organic and inorganic substances.
p.10
General Characteristics of Bacteria
Where can bacteria be found?
In all possible habitats.
p.20
Morphological Types of Bacteria
Give an example of a pleomorphic bacterium.
Acetobacter, which can be seen as bacillus or streptobacillus.
p.12
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What do motile bacteria possess for movement?
One or more flagella composed of eight parallel chains of flagellin.
p.11
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What organelles are absent in bacteria?
Mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus.
p.34
Lichens: Structure and Classification
How does the plant body of lichens compare to algae and fungi?
It neither resembles algae nor fungi.
p.8
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What are bacteria?
Single-celled microorganisms that can exist independently or as parasites.
p.28
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What does the sulphur bacterium Beggiatoa oxidize?
Hydrogen sulphide to elemental sulphur.
p.2
Role of Archaebacteria in Evolution
What significant role did Archaebacteria play in the evolution of life on Earth?
They transformed the initial environment by accumulating organic substances before the evolution of photosynthesis.
p.35
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What does the algal component of lichens produce through photosynthesis?
Carbohydrates, which are utilized by both the algal and fungal components.
p.18
Morphological Types of Bacteria
How do spirilla typically occur?
Singly or in small chains.
p.26
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What determines the extent of CO₂ reduction in non-sulfur purple bacteria?
The organic substrate used.
p.55
General Characteristics of Bacteria
Where do viruses replicate and show living properties?
Inside the living cells of other organisms.
p.14
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What is the most common form of bacteria?
Bacillus or rod-shaped bacteria.
p.43
Lichens: Structure and Classification
How are algal cells and fungal filaments arranged in species like Parmelia and Physcia?
They are interwoven within the thallus.
p.39
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What characterizes crustose lichens?
They have an inconspicuous, thin, and flat thallus that is firm in texture.
p.36
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What are the two types of fruiting bodies in lichens?
Apothecia (disc-shaped) and perithecia (flask-shaped).
p.14
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What variations can exist in the shape of bacilli?
They may have rounded or blunt ends, and can vary from very short to long and narrow.
p.6
Types of Archaebacteria: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermoacidophiles
What are halophilic archaebacteria?
They are salt-loving aerobes that thrive in salt lakes, tidal pools, and salt brines.
p.48
Economic Importance of Lichens
How is alcohol produced from lichens in Sweden and Russia?
From species like Cetraria islandica, which contain carbohydrates in the form of lichenin.
p.32
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
Which bacteria carry out lactic acid fermentation of milk?
Lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus).
p.32
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What occurs during putrefaction?
Reduction of protein to peptone, polypeptide, peptides, and amino acids.
p.11
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What type of nucleus do bacteria lack?
A well-organized nucleus characteristic of eukaryotes.
p.11
General Characteristics of Bacteria
Is the nuclear material in bacteria surrounded by a nuclear membrane?
No, it is not surrounded by a nuclear membrane.
p.10
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What are the three types of heterotrophic bacteria?
Parasitic, saprophytic, or symbiotic.
p.19
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What is a characteristic feature of vibrios?
A single flagellum at its tip.
p.26
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What are some common examples of purple sulfur bacteria?
Chromatium, Thiocystis, Thiospirillum, and Amoebobacter.
p.11
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What structure in bacteria carries out the function of mitochondria?
Complex localized infoldings in the cell membrane known as mesosomes.
p.2
Characteristics of Archaebacteria
What conditions do Archaebacteria retain adaptations for?
Very high levels of temperature, pH, and salt concentration.
p.26
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What is a key characteristic of non-sulfur purple bacteria?
They are motile and do not produce gas vacuoles or accumulate sulfur.
p.13
Classification of Bacteria
How are bacteria distinguished from other microorganisms?
Based on their typical prokaryotic structure.
p.30
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What are common H2-oxidizing bacteria?
Pseudomonas saccharophila and P. facilis.
p.12
Classification of Bacteria
What is Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology?
The standard reference book for classification and identification of bacteria.
p.50
Economic Importance of Lichens
Which lichens are known for producing delicate perfume?
Lobularia pulmonaria and Evernia prunastri.
p.2
Characteristics of Archaebacteria
Why are Archaebacteria considered a primitive group of organisms?
Because they still retain adaptations for living under primitive Earth conditions.
p.51
Ecological Importance of Lichens
What types of pollutants can lichens absorb?
Heavy metals, carbon, sulfur, and other pollutants.
p.33
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What are endosymbionts?
Symbiotic bacteria that live inside the host tissue.
p.50
Ecological Importance of Lichens
What types of pollutants can some lichens tolerate?
Sulphur and nitrogen compounds.
p.53
Ecological Importance of Lichens
What role does lichen ground cover play in tundra ecosystems?
It helps to insulate the ground and may provide forage for grazing animals.
p.38
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What are Ascolichens?
Lichens where the fungal component is a member of the class Ascomycetes.
p.37
Lichens: Structure and Classification
How does the fungal component protect the alga in lichens?
From high temperature and desiccation.
p.7
Types of Archaebacteria: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermoacidophiles
Where have extremely thermophilic microorganisms been recently discovered?
Mainly from volcanic walls.
p.9
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What is the size and differentiation level of bacteria?
They are microscopic and the least differentiated living organisms.
p.21
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What is the basis for dividing autotrophs into lithotrophs and organotrophs?
The nature of substances oxidized; lithotrophs utilize inorganic substances, while organotrophs oxidize organic matter.
p.12
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What methods do bacteria use for genetic recombination?
Conjugation, transformation, and transduction.
p.52
Ecological Importance of Lichens
How do lichens convert nitrogen in the air?
By associating with algae to convert it into nitrates.
p.37
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What are the algal components of lichens primarily classified as?
Chlorophyceae or Myxophyceae.
p.52
Ecological Importance of Lichens
What happens to nitrates when it rains?
They are leached from lichens.
p.20
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What are the two main groups of bacteria based on their mode of nutrition?
1. Autotrophic bacteria 2. Heterotrophic bacteria.
p.34
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What type of structure do lichens have?
A composite thalloid structure formed by the association of algae and fungi.
p.17
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What are diplococci?
Cocci that occur in pairs, exemplified by Diplococcus pneumoniae.
p.8
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What is the size range of bacteria?
Typically between 0.5 to 5 micrometers in diameter.
p.31
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What is the role of Nitrobacter in bacteria?
Nitrobacter carries out oxidation, using nitrite as its only source of energy.
p.53
Ecological Importance of Lichens
How do lichens affect the erosive potential of downpours?
They absorb much of the raindrops' force, greatly lessening erosive potential.
p.54
Ecological Importance of Lichens
How do lichens transform barren regions?
By converting them into areas that can support vegetation.
p.1
Characteristics of Archaebacteria
What is a key feature of Archaebacterial cell membranes?
They contain unique lipids that differ from those found in bacteria and eukaryotes.
p.31
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What are the three major nutritional categories of heterotrophic bacteria?
Parasitic bacteria, saprophytic bacteria, and mutualistic bacteria.
p.45
Lichens: Structure and Classification
How do some hyphae in the lower cortex become specialized?
They extend downward from the lower surface of the cortex to help in attachment.
p.30
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What is the significance of nitrifying bacteria in nature?
They help greatly in the economy of nitrogen.
p.31
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What are parasitic bacteria?
Bacteria that feed on living organisms.
p.14
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What characteristics do bacilli have?
They are rod-shaped, cylindrical or elongate, and can be motile or non-motile.
p.49
Economic Importance of Lichens
What are lichen acids useful for?
Identification and classification of lichens.
p.9
General Characteristics of Bacteria
How do bacteria resemble other living organisms?
They have resemblance with both plants and animals.
p.24
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
Where is sulfur deposited in purple sulfur bacteria?
Intracellularly (extracellularly in Ectothiorhodospira).
p.50
Economic Importance of Lichens
What is scented incense obtained from?
Species of Ramalina and Evernia.
p.27
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What distinguishes non-sulphur purple bacteria from purple sulphur bacteria?
Non-sulphur purple bacteria can grow in the presence of oxygen.
p.10
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What is the composition of the bacterial cell wall?
Made up of amino acid subunits and saccharide subunits.
p.4
Characteristics of Archaebacteria
What makes archaebacteria unusual monerans?
They possess certain peculiar characters.
p.5
Types of Archaebacteria: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermoacidophiles
What conditions are required for methanogenesis to occur?
An oxygen-free environment at temperatures from about 10 °C to 100 °C.
p.28
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What happens to elemental sulphur in Beggiatoa?
It is deposited in the filaments as minute granules.
p.32
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What do saprophytic bacteria grow on?
Dead and decaying organic matter.
p.8
Ecological Importance of Lichens
What is the role of bacteria in the ecosystem?
They decompose organic matter and recycle nutrients.
p.17
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What are sarcinae?
Spherical bacteria that divide in three planes, forming a cuboidal arrangement, such as Sarcinae lutea and S. verticuli.
p.48
Economic Importance of Lichens
In what industries are some species of lichens useful?
Brewing, distilling, tanning, and dyeing.
p.46
Economic Importance of Lichens
What nutrients are lichens rich in?
Polysaccharides, some vitamins, and certain enzymes.
p.53
Ecological Importance of Lichens
What types of organisms benefit from lichens as a habitat?
Insects, arthropods, and other small invertebrates.
p.30
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What is the first step of nitrification?
Oxidation of ammonia or ammonium ions to nitrate by Nitrosomonas.
p.48
Economic Importance of Lichens
What is the lung wart lichen used for?
Tanning, brewing, and as a substitute for hops in brewing.
p.32
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What is a common example of fermentation?
Breakdown of sugars by yeast, releasing CO2.
p.30
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What occurs in the second step of nitrification?
Oxidation of nitrite to nitrate.
p.38
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What are Pyrenocarpeae also known as?
Pyrenolichens (e.g., Dermatocarpon).
p.20
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
How are bacteria classified based on nutrition?
Bacteria are classified into two groups: Autotrophic bacteria and Heterotrophic bacteria.
p.4
Characteristics of Archaebacteria
How do the ribosomal RNA and protein synthesis mechanisms of archaebacteria compare to eukaryotes?
They are similar to their eukaryotic counterparts.
p.23
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What is a key characteristic of bacterial photosynthesis?
Oxygen is never released during photosynthesis.
p.25
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What is the chemical equation representing the process involving green sulfur bacteria?
6 CO2 + 12 H2S → 12 (CH2O) + H2SO4.
p.48
Economic Importance of Lichens
What is one medicinal use of lichens?
Preparation of ointment for wounds and burns.
p.10
General Characteristics of Bacteria
Is cellulose present in the cell wall of bacteria?
No, cellulose is absent in bacteria.
p.37
Lichens: Structure and Classification
In lichens, what is the nature of the relationship between algal and fungal components?
Symbiotic, where both are equally benefited.
p.45
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What is the function of the lower cortex in lichens?
It is composed of compactly arranged hyphae that help in the attachment of the thallus to the substratum.
p.33
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What are ectosymbionts?
Symbiotic bacteria that live on the surface of the host.
p.23
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What is the shape and motility of green sulphur bacteria?
They are small, nonmotile, rod-shaped bacteria.
p.15
Morphological Types of Bacteria
How are bacillus bacteria classified?
Based on their arrangement.
p.38
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What are Deuterolichens?
Lichens where the fungal component is a member of the class Deuteromycetes.
p.35
Lichens: Structure and Classification
How are lichens classified based on the structure of their thallus?
Into three broad types: crustose, foliose, and fruticose.
p.25
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What alternative compounds can some purple sulfur bacteria use instead of H2S?
Other reduced sulfur compounds like thiosulfate and sulfite.
p.33
General Characteristics of Bacteria
How do symbiotic bacteria assist in digestion?
They secrete enzymes that help in the digestion of cellulose.
p.30
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What is the sole source of energy for Nitrosomonas?
The oxidation of ammonia.
p.33
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What do leguminous plants provide to root nodule bacteria?
Shelter and carbohydrates.
p.35
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What are the two parts of the carpogonium in lichens?
A basal coiled ascogonium and an elongated multicellular trichogyne.
p.16
Morphological Types of Bacteria
How are cocci classified?
Based on the arrangement and the number of cells in a cluster.
p.50
Economic Importance of Lichens
Which lichens are reported to have perfumed volatile oils used in cosmetics?
Evernia, Ramalina, and Pseudorina.
p.25
Types of Archaebacteria: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermoacidophiles
What are four well-known examples of green sulfur bacteria?
Chlorobium, Prosthecochloris, Pelodictyon, and Clathrochloris.
p.23
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What type of bacteria are anaerobic and do not release oxygen during photosynthesis?
Anaerobic photoautotrophic bacteria.
p.19
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What are fungus-like bacteria?
Bacteria that form branched filaments, such as Actinomyces and Streptomyces.
p.39
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What are the common colors of lichens?
Usually grey or greyish green, but can also be yellow, red, orange, or brown.
p.1
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
How do Archaebacteria obtain energy?
Through various metabolic pathways, including methanogenesis, sulfur reduction, and photosynthesis.
p.13
Classification of Bacteria
What is the basis for further treatment of the kingdom Procaryotae?
Cellular characteristics.
p.35
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What is the role of the fungal component in lichens?
Responsible for the absorption and retention of water.
p.1
Role of Archaebacteria in Evolution
What is the significance of Archaebacteria in evolutionary biology?
They provide insights into the early evolution of life on Earth and the origins of eukaryotes.
p.13
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What are the two major groups of bacteria based on morphology?
Unicellular and Mycelial.
p.18
Morphological Types of Bacteria
Name a common example of a spirillum.
Spirillum undulum, S. volutans, or S. minus.
p.49
Economic Importance of Lichens
What is litmus used for in laboratories?
As an acid-base indicator.
p.39
Lichens: Structure and Classification
How does the thallus of crustose lichens interact with the substratum?
It is very closely adhered to the substratum and provides a crust-like appearance.
p.53
Ecological Importance of Lichens
How do birds utilize lichens?
They use different species of lichens, usually fruticose types, to build their nests.
p.46
Economic Importance of Lichens
What is the culinary use of species of Parmelia or rock flower?
Used in curry preparation.
p.9
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What type of cellular characteristics do bacteria exhibit?
Typical prokaryotic characters.
p.41
Lichens: Structure and Classification
How do fruticose lichens grow?
They grow erect or hang from the substratum.
p.19
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What are filamentous bacteria?
Bacteria that form unbranched filamentous structures, like Beggiatoa and Thiothrix.
p.17
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What are streptococci?
Spherical bacteria that occur in long chains, such as Streptococcus lactis and S. pyogenes.
p.30
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What type of bacteria are nitrifying bacteria?
Soil-borne obligate autotrophs.
p.43
Lichens: Structure and Classification
How are algal cells arranged in some lichen species like Collema and Leptogium?
In these species, algal cells and fungal hyphae are distributed more or less uniformly throughout the thallus.
p.51
Ecological Importance of Lichens
What do lichens absorb from the atmosphere that benefits humans?
Pollutants and potentially toxic compounds.
p.9
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What are bacteria considered in terms of cellular organization?
The smallest and most successful prokaryotes.
p.49
Economic Importance of Lichens
What have the fungal components of some lichen species been used for?
As dyes in coloring fabrics and paints.
p.46
Economic Importance of Lichens
What is the economic importance of certain species of lichens?
They are valuable sources of food.
p.8
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What are some nutritional classifications of bacteria?
Autotrophs, heterotrophs, and chemotrophs.
p.27
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What is a frequent limitation of chemosynthetic bacteria?
Inability to use organic compounds as energy and carbon sources.
p.39
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What happens to the thallus of crustose lichens in relation to the substratum?
It is wholly or partially embedded in the substratum, with only fruiting bodies visible above the surface.
p.47
Economic Importance of Lichens
What substance secreted from Usnea barbata is effective in tuberculosis?
Usnic acid, along with Streptomycin.
p.43
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What are gonidium cells?
Gonidium cells are reproductive cells of algae found in the algal layer of lichens.
p.31
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
How do heterotrophic bacteria obtain their food?
They obtain their readymade food from any organic source.
p.8
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What are the main shapes of bacteria?
Cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), and spirilla (spiral-shaped).
p.27
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
From where do chemosynthetic bacteria derive their energy?
From ammonia, nitrate, nitrite, ferrous iron, hydrogen sulphide, and other inorganic compounds.
p.53
Ecological Importance of Lichens
What do lichens, mosses, and liverworts constitute in tundra ecosystems?
The majority of ground cover.
p.9
General Characteristics of Bacteria
Who first discovered and described bacteria?
Antony van Leeuwenhoek in 1676.
p.52
Ecological Importance of Lichens
What type of structures do lichens have to anchor themselves?
Root-like structures (but not true roots).
p.7
Types of Archaebacteria: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermoacidophiles
What are thermoacidophilic archaebacteria?
Aerobes that inhabit hot and acidic environments.
p.35
Lichens: Structure and Classification
How do lichens reproduce asexually?
By forming various types of asexual spores, such as oidia and pycnidia.
p.41
Lichens: Structure and Classification
Name some examples of foliose lichens.
Parmelia, Physcia, Peltigera, Xanthoria, Gyrophora, and Collema.
p.6
Types of Archaebacteria: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermoacidophiles
What is the shape of halophilic archaebacteria?
They are rod-shaped forms.
p.32
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
Do anaerobic bacteria require oxygen for putrefaction?
No, the process does not require oxygen.
p.47
Economic Importance of Lichens
Which lichen species are commonly used as fodder for animals?
Stereocaulon, Evernia, Parmelia, and Lecanora.
p.33
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What are symbiotic bacteria?
Bacteria that grow in close (beneficial) association with other living organisms.
p.17
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What are tetracocci?
Cocci that form groups of four cells, like Pedicoccus cerevisiae and Neisseria.
p.13
Classification of Bacteria
What are the two divisions of Procaryotae?
Cyanobacteria and Bacteria.
p.38
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What are Basidiolichens?
Lichens where the fungal component is a member of the class Basidiomycetes.
p.52
Ecological Importance of Lichens
What role do lichens play in erosion control?
They enrich the soil by trapping water, dust, and silt.
p.39
Lichens: Structure and Classification
How are lichens classified based on external morphology?
They are classified into three types based on thallus organization.
p.32
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
How do saprophytic bacteria obtain their food?
By decomposing complex organic molecules into simple inorganic constituents.
p.41
Lichens: Structure and Classification
How are foliose lichens attached to their substratum?
By rhizoid-like outgrowths called rhizines.
p.51
Ecological Importance of Lichens
What significant role do lichens play in nitrogen fixation?
They can be a significant source of nitrogen for plants.
p.6
Types of Archaebacteria: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermoacidophiles
What is methane used for?
It is utilized in various domestic and industrial processes as a fuel.
p.7
Types of Archaebacteria: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermoacidophiles
What do thermoacidophilic archaebacteria oxidize under aerobic conditions?
Sulphur to sulphuric acid.
p.39
Lichens: Structure and Classification
Can you name some examples of crustose lichens?
Graphis, Haematomma, Lecidia, Rhizocarpon, Strigula.
p.55
General Characteristics of Bacteria
How are plant viruses categorized?
Depending upon the host, into bacterial viruses, algal viruses, fungal viruses, etc.
p.47
Economic Importance of Lichens
Which lichen serves as food for musk ox, Caribou, and reindeer in tundra?
Cladonia rangiferina (Reindeer Moss).
p.39
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What is the shape of the plant body of lichens?
Thalloid and irregular in shape.
p.48
Economic Importance of Lichens
What substance from Cetraria islandica is used as a laxative?
A mucilaginous substance.
p.25
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What provides the reducing power for purple sulfur bacteria?
H2S, which is oxidized anaerobically to sulfate.
p.18
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What is a characteristic feature of spirilla regarding flagella?
They have one or more flagella at each pole.
p.25
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
Where is sulfur deposited in purple sulfur bacteria?
Intracellularly (extracellularly in Ectothiorhodospira).
p.50
Ecological Importance of Lichens
How do lichens respond to pollution?
Some are tolerant while others are sensitive to pollutants.
p.48
Economic Importance of Lichens
What is Orchil and what is it used for?
A blue dye obtained from Roccella and Leconara, used to dye woolen articles and silk fabrics.
p.23
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What do green sulphur bacteria use as an electron donor?
H2S or other reduced inorganic sulphur compounds.
p.35
Lichens: Structure and Classification
Which component of lichens is involved in sexual reproduction?
Only the fungal component.
p.36
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What happens when an ascospore germinates and contacts a suitable alga?
It forms a new lichen thallus.
p.49
Economic Importance of Lichens
What products can be made from sweet-scented thalli of certain lichens?
Scents, perfumes, dhup, hawan samagris.
p.47
Economic Importance of Lichens
What medicinal uses have lichens been known for since ancient times?
To cure fever, jaundice, skin diseases, and epilepsy.
p.27
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What type of bacteria are chemosynthetic bacteria?
Non-photosynthetic but autotrophic.
p.4
Characteristics of Archaebacteria
What is the composition of the cell wall in archaebacteria?
It is made up of polysaccharides and protein subunits.
p.17
Morphological Types of Bacteria
What are staphylococci?
An irregular group of many spherical bacteria, including Staphylococcus albus and S. aureus.
p.4
Characteristics of Archaebacteria
What type of lipids are found in the plasma membrane of archaebacteria?
Branched chain lipids (glycerol ether lipids).
p.41
Lichens: Structure and Classification
Describe the structure of foliose lichens.
They are flat with leaf-like and lobed thallus, generally grayish or brownish in color, spreading out in a horizontal layer.
p.26
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What happens when the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is greater than two to one in non-sulfur purple bacteria?
Excess hydrogen is used to reduce CO₂.
p.33
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What is an example of symbiotic bacteria in humans and animals?
Bacteria inhabiting the intestine.
p.27
Nutritional Classification of Bacteria
What is a characteristic of chemosynthetic bacteria regarding energy sources?
They have high specificity with respect to inorganic energy sources.
p.7
Types of Archaebacteria: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermoacidophiles
What can some forms of thermoacidophilic archaebacteria reduce under anaerobic conditions?
Sulphur to hydrogen sulphide.
p.41
Lichens: Structure and Classification
How is the plant body of fruticose lichens attached to the substratum?
With the help of a basal attachment.
p.6
Types of Archaebacteria: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermoacidophiles
Why are methanogenic bacteria considered beneficial?
They are exploited as alternative energy sources.
p.37
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What does the fungal component provide to the alga in lichens?
Food, water, and minerals.
p.55
General Characteristics of Bacteria
What types of life forms can viruses infect?
All types, from multicellular to unicellular organisms.
p.23
Morphological Types of Bacteria
Where is chlorobium chlorophyll located in green sulphur bacteria?
In the invaginations of the cytoplasmic membrane.
p.15
Morphological Types of Bacteria
Give an example of a diplobacillus.
Corynebacterium diphtheriae.
p.41
Lichens: Structure and Classification
Can foliose lichens be easily dismantled?
Yes, they can be easily dismantled without damaging the substrates.
p.38
Lichens: Structure and Classification
What are Gymnocarpeae also known as?
Discolichens (e.g., Parmelia).
p.41
Lichens: Structure and Classification
Describe the structure of fruticose lichens.
They have a well-developed, shrub-like, cylindrical, and branched thallus.
p.1
Characteristics of Archaebacteria
What are Archaebacteria?
A group of single-celled microorganisms that are distinct from bacteria and eukaryotes.
