p.1
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
What are the external organs of the female reproductive system?
Labia minora, labia majora, clitoris, and mons pubis.
p.1
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
What is the vulvar vestibule?
The space between the labia minora that includes the vaginal and urethral openings.
p.1
Functions of Estrogen and Progesterone
What are the primary functions of the ovaries?
To secrete estrogen and progesterone.
p.4
Functions of Estrogen and Progesterone
What drives the process of osmosis?
The concentration gradient of solutes.
p.21
Hormonal Regulation in Reproductive Health
What hormone increases the activity of aromatase?
FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone).
p.21
Functions of Estrogen and Progesterone
Which tissues are target sites for 17-beta-estradiol?
Uterus, vagina, bones, and blood vessels.
p.5
Hormonal Regulation in Reproductive Health
How is prolactin synthesis regulated?
Inhibited by dopamine during the non-pregnant/non-breastfeeding state.
p.7
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
What are the two layers of the uterine endometrium?
A thin base layer and a functional layer.
p.9
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
Where does the placenta develop?
Where the embryo attaches to the uterine wall.
p.19
Hormonal Regulation in Reproductive Health
How is androstenedione converted to testosterone?
Androstenedione diffuses to nearby granulosa cells and is converted to testosterone by 17-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase.
p.12
Labor and Delivery Stages
How is intrauterine pressure measured during contractions?
In millimeters of mercury (mm Hg).
p.16
Hormonal Regulation in Reproductive Health
What happens to progesterone levels after the delivery of the placenta?
Progesterone levels decrease, allowing milk synthesis in alveoli.
p.2
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
What is the vagina's connection to the uterus?
The vagina extends from the uterus and opens into the vulva.
p.18
Menopause and Its Effects
What is vulvovaginal atrophy?
It is characterized by vaginal dryness and loss of vaginal rugae, leading to dyspareunia.
p.17
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What is mastitis and how is it treated?
Mastitis is a bacterial infection that usually presents unilaterally with localized warmth and flu-like symptoms; treatment includes continued breastfeeding, NSAIDs, and antibiotics.
p.13
Labor and Delivery Stages
What is the first cardinal movement of labor?
Descent, where the presenting part reaches the pelvic inlet.
p.1
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
What are the components of the fallopian tubes?
Two tubes associated with each ovary, lined with smooth muscle and cilia.
p.5
Hormonal Regulation in Reproductive Health
What is the role of oxytocin in the reproductive system?
Essential for progression of labor, control of postpartum bleeding, and return of the uterus to its pre-pregnancy state (involution).
p.20
Hormonal Regulation in Reproductive Health
What is the first step in progesterone synthesis?
Cholesterol desmolase converts cholesterol into pregnenolone.
p.9
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What is the function of the mucus plug in the cervix during pregnancy?
It seals the endocervical canal.
p.17
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What is transitional milk and when is it produced?
Transitional milk is produced 7–10 days postpartum; it is thinner than colostrum and has a light yellow color.
p.11
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What are stretch marks (striae gravidarum) a result of during pregnancy?
Decreased connective tissue strength due to increased adrenal steroid levels.
p.6
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What is the let-down reflex?
The contraction of myoepithelial cells surrounding alveoli in the breasts, leading to milk ejection.
p.2
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
What ligaments anchor the uterus?
Uterosacral ligaments and round ligaments.
p.13
Labor and Delivery Stages
What does fetal attitude refer to?
The relationship of fetal parts to one another.
p.18
Hormonal Regulation in Reproductive Health
What hormonal changes occur during menopause?
Decreased estrogen and progesterone lead to increased bursts of GnRH and elevated FSH and LH levels.
p.8
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What is the estimated fundal height at 20 weeks of pregnancy?
At the level of the umbilicus.
p.13
Labor and Delivery Stages
What characterizes a frank breech presentation?
Hips flexed and knees extended, with the bottom presenting.
p.2
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
What type of epithelium lines the inner mucous membrane of the vagina?
Stratified squamous epithelium.
p.6
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What triggers the neuroendocrine reflex during lactation?
Suckling by the infant at the breast.
p.19
Functions of Estrogen and Progesterone
What are the main sources of estrogen and progesterone in females?
Produced mainly by the ovaries, with some estrogen produced in the adrenal cortex, adipose tissue, and secreted by the placenta during pregnancy.
p.5
Oogenesis and Follicular Development
What are the stages of follicular development?
Primordial follicles → primary follicles → secondary follicles → tertiary (Graafian) follicles.
p.20
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
How does progesterone help maintain pregnancy?
By decreasing irritability of the myometrium, reducing the risk of spontaneous abortion.
p.12
Labor and Delivery Stages
What are the three Ps that dictate navigation through the maternal pelvis during labor?
Power, passenger, passage.
p.17
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What are some key components of mature milk?
Mature milk contains protein, fat, sugars (like lactose and oligosaccharides), vitamins, minerals, immunoglobulins, antibodies (especially secretory IgA), immune cells, and immune-modulating factors.
p.16
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What is lactogenesis?
The initiation of milk secretion from lactating breast tissue.
p.2
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
What are the three layers of the uterine wall?
Perimetrium, myometrium, and endometrium.
p.7
Hormonal Regulation in Reproductive Health
What inhibits the action of oxytocin during pregnancy?
Rapid degradation by placental oxytocinase and progesterone-induced inhibition of oxytocin receptors.
p.20
Functions of Estrogen and Progesterone
What systemic effect does progesterone have in conjunction with estrogen?
It promotes bone remodeling and increases bone density.
p.9
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What is leukorrhea and its pH range?
A vaginal discharge with a pH of 3.5–6.0 that protects against bacterial infections.
p.16
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What are the benefits of breastfeeding for mothers?
Breastfeeding accelerates uterine involution and reduces the risk of chronic diseases such as Type II diabetes and certain cancers.
p.14
Labor and Delivery Stages
What are the critical factors in determining the fetus' ease of passage through the maternal pelvis?
Fetal attitude, lie, and presentation.
p.8
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
How long does a typical pregnancy last?
Approximately 280 days (40 weeks).
p.12
Labor and Delivery Stages
What characterizes the transition phase of labor?
Intense contractions every 1.5–2 minutes, lasting 60–90 seconds, with cervical dilation of 7–10 cm.
p.5
Menstrual Cycle Phases
What happens to the corpus luteum if fertilization does not occur?
It stops making hormones after about ten days and becomes fibrotic, turning into the corpus albicans.
p.17
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What are some contraindications to breastfeeding?
Contraindications include certain maternal medications (like chemotherapy), illicit drugs (such as cannabis and heroin), HIV infection, herpes lesions on the breast, and tuberculosis.
p.7
Hormonal Regulation in Reproductive Health
How does estrogen affect oxytocin during labor?
It induces oxytocin receptor expression and increases myometrial sensitivity to oxytocin.
p.20
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
How does progesterone affect skin during pregnancy?
It promotes skin elasticity.
p.3
Oogenesis and Follicular Development
What are oogonia?
Primordial oocyte cells that undergo mitotic division to increase in number.
p.18
Menopause and Its Effects
What are the risks associated with decreased estrogen during menopause?
Increased risk of cardiovascular disease and decreased bone marrow density, leading to osteoporosis and fractures.
How much weight gain is recommended during pregnancy?
25–35 pounds (11.5–16 kg).
p.3
Oogenesis and Follicular Development
What forms during infancy to puberty in follicular development?
Primary oocytes surrounded by granulosa cells form primary (primordial) follicles.
p.3
Oogenesis and Follicular Development
What forms in Graafian follicles and what is its function?
Antrum (fluid-filled cavity) forms; granulosa cells secrete nourishing fluid for the primary oocyte.
p.1
Oogenesis and Follicular Development
What is the function of the cilia in the fallopian tubes?
To sweep the zygote towards the uterus.
p.12
Labor and Delivery Stages
What is the difference between true labor and false labor?
True labor has regular contractions that increase in frequency, duration, and intensity, producing cervical changes, while false labor has irregular, intermittent contractions with no cervical changes.
p.6
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What effect does oxytocin have during lactation?
It stimulates milk ejection from the alveoli (let-down reflex).
p.2
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
Where is the uterus located?
Posterior to the bladder and anterior to the rectum.
p.2
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
What are the main parts of the uterus?
Fundus, uterine body, uterine isthmus, and cervix.
p.8
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What physiological changes occur in the uterus during pregnancy?
Increased size and capacity due to hypertrophy and hyperplasia, increased strength and distensibility, and softening of the uterine isthmus.
p.13
Common Complications in Pregnancy and Breastfeeding
What is macrosomia in the context of fetal weight?
Birth weight ≥ 90th percentile for gestational age or > 4500 g.
p.11
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What is the effect of estrogen on vascular permeability during pregnancy?
It leads to spider nevi, angiomas, and palmar erythema.
p.8
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What is the significance of the Hegar sign?
It indicates softening of the uterine isthmus, a probable sign of pregnancy.
p.9
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What physiological change occurs in the vagina during pregnancy?
Increased vascularity leading to a bluish-purple color.
p.19
Functions of Estrogen and Progesterone
How does estrogen prepare the uterus for implantation?
Increases endometrial proliferation and secretion in collaboration with progesterone.
p.2
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
What is the fornix in relation to the vagina?
It is the superior, domed area that connects to the sides of the cervix.
p.1
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
What ligaments hold the ovaries in place?
Ovarian, broad, and suspensory ligaments.
p.7
Menstrual Cycle Phases
What is menstruation?
The shedding of the uterine functional endometrium.
p.7
Oogenesis and Follicular Development
What triggers ovulation?
A brief surge of LH on Day 14.
p.3
Hormonal Regulation in Reproductive Health
What do theca cells produce and what is its significance?
They produce androstenedione, which is converted into estradiol in granulosa cells.
p.4
Functions of Estrogen and Progesterone
What is osmosis?
The movement of water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.
p.12
Labor and Delivery Stages
What are Braxton-Hicks contractions?
They are also known as false labor contractions.
p.5
Hormonal Regulation in Reproductive Health
What is the function of prolactin (PL)?
Involved in the production and release of milk.
p.6
Breastfeeding and Lactation
How does prolactin affect ovarian function?
It inhibits the release of GnRH, leading to decreased LH and FSH, which reduces ovarian follicle development and ovulation.
p.19
Functions of Estrogen and Progesterone
What are the three types of estrogen?
Estradiol (most biologically active), estrone, and estriol.
p.17
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What are the characteristics of mature milk?
Mature milk is produced 2 weeks postpartum, has a watery, slight bluish color, and its fat content increases during feeding.
p.18
Menopause and Its Effects
What precedes menopause?
Perimenopause, which lasts about 4 years before the final menstrual period.
p.12
Labor and Delivery Stages
What physiological factors stimulate uterine contractions?
Stimulation of uterine myometrium and alpha-receptors, along with numerous oxytocin receptors on the uterine fundus.
p.19
Hormonal Regulation in Reproductive Health
What regulates the secretion of estrogen and progesterone?
Regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis through feedback loops.
p.2
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
What is the function of the myometrium?
It is composed of smooth muscle that aids in uterine contractions.
p.7
Labor and Delivery Stages
What is the positive feedback loop during labor?
Increased uterine contractions lead to fetal head pushing against the cervix, triggering more oxytocin release and further contractions.
p.16
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What is the let-down reflex?
A neuroendocrine reflex that triggers milk ejection from the alveoli.
p.19
Functions of Estrogen and Progesterone
What systemic effects does estrogen have?
Required for closure of epiphyseal plates, has an anabolic effect on bones, and maintains flexibility of blood vessels.
p.9
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What cardiovascular changes occur during pregnancy?
Increased heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output, with decreased blood pressure.
p.16
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What are the benefits of breast milk for infants?
Breast milk has a higher whey to casein ratio, immunoglobulins, long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, and beneficial bacteria, aiding absorption and reducing infection risk.
p.4
Functions of Estrogen and Progesterone
What type of membrane is involved in osmosis?
A semi-permeable membrane.
p.8
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What is Naegele’s rule used for?
To calculate the estimated date of delivery (EDD) from the last menstrual period (LMP).
p.9
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What is Goodell’s sign?
Mild softening of the cervix due to edema and hyperplasia.
p.5
Oogenesis and Follicular Development
What happens during ovulation?
The dominant follicle ruptures and releases a secondary oocyte into the fallopian tube.
p.5
Menstrual Cycle Phases
What occurs during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle?
The remains of the follicle turn into the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone if fertilization occurs.
p.20
Breastfeeding and Lactation
How does progesterone affect breast development during pregnancy?
It increases alveolar-lobular development and prevents milk production by inhibiting prolactin.
p.9
Hormonal Regulation in Reproductive Health
What hormones does the placenta secrete?
Estrogen, progesterone, relaxin, and hCG.
p.18
Menopause and Its Effects
What are hot flashes and what causes them?
Hot flashes are caused by hypothalamus-associated thermoregulatory dysfunction leading to vasomotor instability.
p.18
Menopause and Its Effects
What are some strategies to manage hot flashes?
Avoid triggers like hot drinks and spicy foods, maintain a cool environment, and wear lighter clothing.
p.17
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What causes sore, cracked nipples during breastfeeding?
Sore, cracked nipples are often caused by improper latch or positioning.
p.13
Labor and Delivery Stages
What type of pelvis is optimal for vaginal delivery?
Gynecoid pelvis, which has a rounded pelvic inlet.
p.16
Breastfeeding and Lactation
How does the amount of milk produced relate to feeding?
The amount of milk produced depends on the amount removed at feeding (supply meets demand).
p.16
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What is colostrum?
The small amounts of thick, yellowish fluid produced during the second half of pregnancy, rich in immune cells and antibodies.
p.3
Oogenesis and Follicular Development
What are the stages of follicular development during the menstrual cycle?
Primary follicle → secondary follicle → tertiary (Graafian) follicle.
p.15
Labor and Delivery Stages
What are the second stage cardinal movements in labor?
The fetal position changes that occur during labor.
p.5
Hormonal Regulation in Reproductive Health
Where is oxytocin synthesized and secreted?
Synthesized in the hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior pituitary.
p.8
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What are some presumptive signs of pregnancy?
Amenorrhea, breast fullness, tenderness, nausea/vomiting, urinary frequency, fatigue, fetal movement (16–20 weeks).
p.18
Menopause and Its Effects
What is the diagnosis criterion for menopause?
Menstrual cycles have stopped for an entire year with no identified pathological cause.
p.6
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What role does oxytocin play in uterine health postpartum?
It stimulates contractile activity of the uterine myometrium, reducing postpartum bleeding and promoting uterine involution.
p.17
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What is a common recommendation regarding vitamin D in breast milk?
Breast milk is low in vitamin D, so supplementation is often recommended.
p.20
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What respiratory changes occur due to progesterone?
Increased sensitivity to CO2, mild hyperventilation, and decreased airway resistance.
p.13
Labor and Delivery Stages
What is the most common fetal presentation for delivery?
Cephalic presentation, specifically vertex position.
p.16
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What role does oxytocin play in breastfeeding?
Oxytocin is required for milk to be released from alveoli.
p.19
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What role does estrogen play during pregnancy?
Secreted by the placenta to support the uterus and stimulate development of the myometrium.
p.1
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
What is the structure of the ovaries?
Made up of an outer cortex containing ovarian follicles and an inner medulla with blood vessels and nerves.
p.18
Menopause and Its Effects
What is the role of menopausal hormone therapy (MHT)?
MHT, including estrogen or estrogen plus progestin, can be helpful in managing menopausal symptoms.
p.11
Labor and Delivery Stages
What are the three stages of labor?
Uterine contractions, cervical changes, and delivery of the baby and placenta.
p.4
Functions of Estrogen and Progesterone
What is the result of osmosis in cells?
Cells can gain or lose water, affecting their size and function.
p.8
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What does GTPAL stand for in obstetric history?
G: number of pregnancies, T: number of term infants born, P: number of preterm infants born, A: number of spontaneous/induced abortions, L: number of currently living children.
p.11
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What causes the pregnancy 'glow'?
Increased cutaneous blood flow leading to enhanced heat dissipation.
p.12
Labor and Delivery Stages
What begins the second stage of labor?
It begins with full cervical dilation.
p.19
Hormonal Regulation in Reproductive Health
What is the initial step in the synthesis of progesterone from cholesterol?
Cholesterol is converted to pregnenolone via cholesterol desmolase.
p.13
Labor and Delivery Stages
What is the ideal fetal lie during delivery?
Longitudinal, where the fetal spine lies along the maternal spine.
p.19
Functions of Estrogen and Progesterone
What are the effects of estrogen on female reproductive organs?
Maturation of female reproductive organs and development of secondary sexual characteristics.
p.11
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What hormone increases joint mobility during pregnancy?
Progesterone and relaxin.
p.11
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What is the 'diabetogenic state' of pregnancy?
Increased need for glucose and insulin production, leading to hypertrophy and hyperplasia of pancreatic beta cells.
p.7
Labor and Delivery Stages
What happens to the uterus after labor?
Milder contractions continue to clamp down on placental arteries, reduce bleeding, and gradually decrease the size of the uterus (involution).
p.9
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What is the role of progesterone in breast development during pregnancy?
It increases alveolar-lobular development and prevents milk production.
p.19
Menopause and Its Effects
What happens to estrogen levels during perimenopausal and menopausal years?
Estrogen levels decrease, leading to an increased risk of cardiovascular morbidity, osteoporosis, and sexual dysfunction.
p.7
Oogenesis and Follicular Development
What occurs during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle?
Maturing follicles and proliferation of uterine mucosa, dominated by estrogen.
p.13
Labor and Delivery Stages
What marks the end of the second stage of labor?
The expulsion of the anterior shoulder followed by the posterior shoulder.
p.13
Labor and Delivery Stages
What occurs during the third stage of labor?
Delivery of the placenta, umbilical cord, and fetal membranes.
p.11
Labor and Delivery Stages
What are the premonitory signs of labor?
Cervical changes including softening and expulsion of the mucus plug.
p.1
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
What type of cells line the fallopian tubes?
Mesothelial, epithelial, secretory, and intercalary cells.
p.3
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What happens if fertilization occurs?
The oocyte becomes a mature ovum, and progesterone is produced until the placenta forms.
p.20
Hormonal Regulation in Reproductive Health
What hormone stimulates the proliferation of theca cells?
LH (Luteinizing Hormone).
p.20
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What does increased progesterone during the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle form?
Decidual tissue for implantation.
p.13
Labor and Delivery Stages
What is the most critical fetal size factor during labor?
Fetal head size, particularly cephalopelvic disproportion.
p.2
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
What are the cervical openings in the uterus?
External os (to vagina) and internal os (into uterine cavity).
p.8
Oogenesis and Follicular Development
What happens to the corpus luteum if fertilization does not occur?
It undergoes apoptosis and progesterone levels fall.
p.8
Hormonal Regulation in Reproductive Health
What hormone does embryonic tissue secrete if fertilization occurs?
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG).
p.16
Hormonal Regulation in Reproductive Health
What hormones stimulate the growth of breast glandular tissue during pregnancy?
Human placental lactogen (hPL) and progesterone.
p.11
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What is diastasis recti?
Separation of abdominal rectus muscles due to an enlarging uterus.
p.17
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What is engorgement and how can it be treated?
Engorgement is caused by milk accumulation in breast tissue and can be treated by emptying the breasts through increased breastfeeding or pumping, using warm compresses before feeding, and cool compresses afterward.
p.1
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
Where are the ovaries located?
Superior and lateral to the uterus.
p.9
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What changes occur in the breasts during pregnancy?
Increased size, weight, nodularity, and vascular prominence.
p.3
Oogenesis and Follicular Development
What happens to oogonia at 7 months of fetal development?
They begin meiotic division and become primary oocytes.
p.18
Menopause and Its Effects
What are some common psychological effects of menopause?
Mood instability, depression, anxiety, and decline in cognitive function.
p.13
Labor and Delivery Stages
What happens during the extension phase of labor?
The fetal head passes under the symphysis pubis and emerges from the vagina.
p.9
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What causes supine hypotensive syndrome during pregnancy?
The gravid uterus pressing on the inferior vena cava.
p.9
Pregnancy and Physiological Changes
What is fundal height and its significance?
The distance from the symphysis pubis to the top of the uterus, used to estimate gestational age.
p.17
Breastfeeding and Lactation
What causes yeast infections in breastfeeding mothers?
Yeast infections are caused by Candida albicans and may occur if there is a history of infant oral or diaper candidal infection or maternal vaginal candidal infection.
p.7
Oogenesis and Follicular Development
What happens to the primary follicle during the follicular phase?
It develops into a mature follicle with an outer theca layer and produces estrogen.
p.13
Labor and Delivery Stages
What is the focus of the fourth stage of labor?
Physiological adaptation to blood loss and initiation of uterine involution.
p.3
Menstrual Cycle Phases
What occurs during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle?
Graafian follicles grow, and the follicle with the most FSH receptors becomes the dominant follicle.
p.3
Oogenesis and Follicular Development
What happens during ovulation?
The dominant follicle ruptures, releasing the secondary oocyte into the peritoneal cavity, which is then pulled into the fallopian tube.
p.3
Menstrual Cycle Phases
What happens if fertilization does not occur?
The corpus luteum degenerates into the corpus albicans.
p.3
Hormonal Regulation in Reproductive Health
What is the role of the corpus luteum during the luteal phase?
It secretes inhibin, decreasing FSH, estrogen, and LH, while luteinized theca cells increase progesterone.
