What birth defects can result from excess vitamin A or isotretinoin exposure in infants?
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Cleft palates and heart abnormalities.
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What birth defects can result from excess vitamin A or isotretinoin exposure in infants?
Cleft palates and heart abnormalities.
What role does Thiamine play in enzymatic reactions?
It acts as a coenzyme for pyruvate dehydrogenase and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase.
What is hypovitaminosis D?
A deficiency of vitamin D.
What is a common symptom of hypovitaminosis D?
Brittle bones.
What will you be able to illustrate at the end of the video?
Key disorders resulting from mineral deficiency and/or excess.
What role does hepcidin play in iron regulation?
Hepcidin regulates the absorption of iron.
What occurs when iron levels are low?
Low iron levels decrease hepcidin levels.
What is Vitamin E primarily known for?
Its antioxidant properties.
What role does Vitamin K play in gamma-carboxylation?
It acts as a co-factor in the gamma-carboxylation process.
What is night blindness associated with?
Vitamin A deficiency.
What are common causes of micronutrient deficiency?
General malnutrition, illness, inadequate intake, and increased demand.
What factors can affect micronutrient absorption?
Poor absorption, inefficient utilization, and increased loss.
What is a potential consequence of Vitamin A deficiency during pregnancy?
It can lead to abnormal pregnancy.
What deficiency can result in megaloblastic anemia?
Folate deficiency (Vitamin B9).
What disease was common among sailors due to Vitamin C deficiency?
Scurvy.
What type of anemia is caused by folate deficiency?
Megaloblastic anemia.
What is the primary function of Vitamin K?
It is essential for the synthesis of clotting factors.
What is the chemical symbol for Chloride?
Cl-
What is the role of the nutrient discussed in enzyme function?
It is contained in approximately 100 enzymes associated with carbohydrate and energy metabolism, protein synthesis and degradation, and nucleic acid synthesis.
What should you be able to discuss regarding fat-soluble vitamins?
The causes and symptoms of their deficiencies and toxicities.
What is one of the functions of the nutrient discussed?
Scavenges superoxide and other reactive oxygen species.
Who commonly experiences deficiency of this nutrient?
Patients with major burns, renal damage, those undergoing dialysis, and individuals on intravenous feeding.
How does old age affect micronutrient needs?
It may lead to increased demand and potential deficiencies.
In which dietary context is beriberi commonly seen?
Where polished rice is a major diet component.
What role do micronutrients play in cell biology?
They are essential for cell growth, proliferation, and differentiation.
What is a clear health benefit of folic acid during pregnancy?
It helps prevent neural tube defects in the developing fetus.
What important molecule does Niacin form part of?
NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide).
Which vitamins are suggested for the prevention of cardiovascular diseases?
Vitamins B6, B12, A, C, and E.
What are the two main classifications of vitamins?
Fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins.
What reduction can occur due to high doses of Vitamin A?
Reduction of bone health.
What are the major functions of water-soluble vitamins?
They play crucial roles in various metabolic pathways.
What happens to rhodopsin when exposed to light?
It undergoes a conformational change and elicits a nerve impulse perceived as light by the brain.
What are minerals?
Inorganic elements that are essential for various bodily functions.
What are the manifestations of hypovitaminosis D in children?
Rickets.
What will you be able to describe at the end of the video?
The key functions and regulation of minerals.
What happens to hepcidin levels when iron levels are high?
High iron levels increase hepcidin levels.
How does high hepcidin affect ferroportin and iron absorption?
High hepcidin decreases ferroportin and reduces iron absorption.
What is Vitamin B3 also known as?
Niacin.
What is the chemical symbol for Phosphate?
PO 4 3-
Is there any reason to discourage vitamin supplements?
Only in cases of proven toxicity.
What is hypovitaminosis?
A deficiency of fat-soluble vitamins.
What are free radicals?
Extremely reactive and unstable molecules that can damage biological molecules.
Name some macroelements.
Sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphate.
What is the nature of the results regarding the health benefits of these vitamins?
Controversial results.
What does retinoic acid bind to?
Transcription factors (DNA-binding receptors).
What is the precursor of Vitamin D found in the skin?
7-dehydrocholesterol.
Is there a tolerable upper intake level (UL) set for Vitamin K?
No, because there is no clear toxicity associated with it.
What is the primary function of Iron in the body?
To transport oxygen in the blood.
What are the two main categories of micronutrients?
Vitamins and minerals.
Why is synthetic Vitamin K (menadione) no longer used?
To treat Vitamin K deficiency due to its toxic effects.
What is the general recommendation regarding the intake of fruits and vegetables?
It is unequivocally recommended as sources of micronutrients.
Why is copper important for newborn infants?
Copper is required in trace amounts for optimal human nutrition.
What is a point of controversy regarding vitamins?
The supplementation of some vitamins.
What is a key function of water-soluble vitamins?
They play essential roles in energy metabolism and red blood cell formation.
How does vitamin A deficiency affect epithelial cells?
It produces defective epithelialisation.
What is hypervitaminosis E?
A rare condition caused by excessive intake of Vitamin E supplements.
What is hypervitaminosis A?
A condition resulting from excessive intake of Vitamin A supplements.
What is a major health risk associated with hypervitaminosis A?
Liver toxicity.
During which life stages is the demand for micronutrients increased?
Pregnancy, lactation, and growth spurts.
What can lead to micronutrient toxicity?
Excessive intake of micronutrients.
What condition is treated with drugs like warfarin?
Deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, or atrial fibrillation at risk of thrombosis.
What is the primary function of Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)?
Essential for carbohydrate metabolism.
What is the purpose of warfarin in patients with thrombosis risk?
To prevent blood clots.
What condition does hypovitaminosis D cause in adults?
Osteomalacia.
What condition results from thiamine deficiency?
Beriberi.
What is one purpose of micronutrients in the body?
They form prosthetic groups of enzymes or serve as their cofactors.
What is one of the key functions of Vitamin A?
It acts as an antioxidant.
How do nutrients contribute to the synthesis of molecules?
They provide the building blocks for the synthesis of other important molecules.
What is the role of Vitamin A in the body?
It is essential for vision, immune function, and skin health.
What can excessive intake of Vitamin A lead to?
Toxicity and health issues.
What was a common issue for sailors during long sea voyages?
Lack of fresh fruit or vegetables.
What is the primary function of Vitamin D?
To regulate calcium and phosphorus in the body.
What is the chemical symbol for Calcium?
Ca 2+
What are vitamins?
Essential non-caloric organic nutrients needed in very small amounts (μg - mg) in the body.
What are common sources of Vitamin D?
Sunlight, fatty fish, fortified dairy products, and egg yolks.
What are the major functions of fat-soluble vitamins?
They play crucial roles in various metabolic pathways.
What are minerals?
Essential non-caloric inorganic nutrients needed in very small amounts (μg - mg) in the body.
What can result from a deficiency of Vitamin D?
Rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults.
What is the chemical symbol for Sodium?
Na+
What is the chemical symbol for Magnesium?
Mg 2+
Can both vitamin A deficiency and excess cause birth defects?
Yes, both can cause birth defects.
What are some causes of hypovitaminosis D?
Inadequate dietary intake, disruption of lipid absorption, poor functioning of the liver and kidneys, hypoparathyroidism, and lack of exposure to sunlight.
What happens to ATP production in thiamine deficiency?
ATP production decreases, leading to impaired cellular function.
What is one major purpose of nutrients?
To supply the energy needed for the body to perform work.
How do micronutrients function in relation to hormones?
They play a role in hormone production and regulation.
What role do nutrients play in metabolic pathways?
They support the function of metabolic pathways.
How was Vitamin C affected during sea voyages?
It was destroyed by the methods used to preserve food.
What are the most important sources of vitamins?
Vegetables and fruits.
How does low hepcidin affect ferroportin and iron absorption?
Low hepcidin increases ferroportin and enhances iron absorption.
What is Vitamin A essential for?
Vision, immune function, and skin health.
What is the primary function of Vitamin E?
To serve as an antioxidant that protects cells from reactive oxygen species (ROS).
What effect does warfarin have on Vitamin K?
Warfarin acts as an anticoagulant by inhibiting Vitamin K.
What do reactive oxygen species (ROS) result from?
Free radicals reacting with oxygen.
What is one of the key functions of certain minerals in the body?
Maintain osmotic pressure.
What are common food sources of Vitamin E?
Nuts, seeds, and vegetable oils.
Is this nutrient stored in the body?
No, it is not stored in the body.
What is another name for cholecalciferol?
Vitamin D3.
What is a key difference between fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins?
Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in body fat, while water-soluble vitamins are not.
What is hypovitaminosis C commonly known as?
Scurvy.
What are microelements?
Minerals required in quantities less than 100 mg/day.
What can lead to micronutrient deficiencies?
Various causes including inadequate dietary intake, absorption issues, and increased needs.
What is hypervitaminosis C?
A condition resulting from excessive intake of Vitamin C.
What is haemochromatosis?
An inherited disorder resulting from increased absorption of iron.
What are the main forms of Vitamin A?
Retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, and β-carotene.
What does regulation in the body control?
What stays and what leaves the body.
What is ergocalciferol?
Vitamin D2.
What is the function of β-carotene?
It functions as an antioxidant.
What should be critiqued regarding vitamin supplements?
Their effectiveness and necessity in the diet.
What is the primary function of Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)?
It is a component of coenzyme A (CoA).
What is the primary function of vitamins?
To support various biochemical processes in the body.
What syndrome is associated with chronic alcoholism related to thiamine deficiency?
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.
What is the consequence of diminished synthesis of purines and TMP due to folate deficiency?
Cells are unable to make DNA and cannot divide.
Why is Vitamin D important for people living in areas of low sunlight?
It helps maintain healthy bones and supports immune function.
What is the chemical symbol for Potassium?
K+
What can a deficiency in Vitamin A lead to?
Night blindness and increased risk of infections.
How does Vitamin C function as a reducing agent?
It keeps iron in its reduced state (Fe 3+ → Fe 2+), facilitating collagen folding and stability.
With which type of enzymes is this nutrient associated?
Oxygenase enzymes like cytochrome c oxidase.
What are some symptoms of scurvy?
Sore and spongy gums, loose teeth, fragile blood vessels, swollen joints, and anaemia.
What process does retinoic acid influence?
The transcription of specific genes.
What condition can excess of this nutrient cause?
Liver cirrhosis.
What is the theoretical risk associated with high doses of Vitamin C in patients undergoing dialysis?
Development of renal oxalate stones due to metabolism to oxalate.
What does the body regulate in terms of electrolytes?
Electrolytes and body fluids.
What medication is known to inhibit Vitamin K and affect blood clotting?
Warfarin.
What are minerals?
Inorganic substances essential for various bodily functions.
What can result from Iron deficiency?
Anemia.
What are the two important coenzymes formed by Riboflavin?
FMN (flavin mononucleotide) and FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide).
What symptoms did the man exhibit due to zinc deficiency?
Rash across his face, head, neck, and hair loss.
What are common dietary sources of Vitamin C?
Citrus fruits, strawberries, kiwi, bell peppers, and broccoli.
What are the primary functions of Zinc in the body?
Zinc is essential for immune function, protein synthesis, wound healing, DNA synthesis, and cell division.
What are fat-soluble vitamins?
Vitamins that dissolve in fats and oils and are stored in the body's fatty tissue.
What are some examples of essential minerals?
Calcium, potassium, iron, and magnesium.
Which vitamin acts as an antioxidant and protects cell membranes?
Vitamin E.
What can result from Zinc deficiency?
Impaired immune function, hair loss, diarrhea, and delayed wound healing.
What are the main classifications of micronutrients?
Vitamins and minerals.
What were the results of clinical trials using Vitamin E supplementation?
They were uniformly disappointing, showing no cardiovascular benefit and increased incidence of stroke.
Name two types of vitamins based on solubility.
Water-soluble and fat-soluble.
What is the RDA of Vitamin D for adolescents aged 10-18 years?
600 IU.
What is the function of Vitamin E?
It acts as an antioxidant, protecting cells from damage.
What are the two classifications of vitamins?
Fat-soluble vitamins and water-soluble vitamins.
What is the disorder associated with calcium (Ca²⁺) deficiency?
Hypocalcemia.
What is a potential toxicity of Vitamin D?
Hypercalcemia, which can lead to kidney damage.
What is the chemical name for Vitamin D?
25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-OH-D3).
What health benefit is associated with Vitamins A, C, and E?
Cancer prevention.
What is retinoic acid classified as?
A nuclear hormone.
What is the active form of Vitamin D?
1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25-(OH2)-D3).
What is hypovitaminosis?
A deficiency of vitamins, particularly water-soluble vitamins.
What type of vision do rod cells provide?
Vision in poor light.
What are water-soluble vitamins?
Vitamins that dissolve in water and are not stored in the body.
What is the inactive form of Vitamin K?
Vitamin K (Epoxide).
Can water-soluble vitamins be stored in the body?
No, they are not stored in the body.
What is another name for Vitamin C?
Ascorbic Acid.
How does caloric intake affect B vitamin intake?
Increased caloric intake leads to increased B vitamin intake.
What is the function of retinoic acid?
It contributes to the proper differentiation of epithelial cells.
What can lead to iron depletion aside from dietary issues?
Bleeding, such as traumatic blood loss, abnormal menstruation, or colon cancer.
What can result from severe vitamin A deficiency?
Permanent blindness.
What are the main dietary sources of Vitamin K?
Leafy green vegetables, such as spinach and kale.
Why do patients with major catabolic illness have increased zinc requirements?
Due to major gastrointestinal losses.
Why is isotretinoin considered teratogenic?
It can disrupt the development of the embryo or fetus during pregnancy.
What disorder is characterized by a lack of sufficient iron in the body?
Anaemia.
What deficiency is caused by a lack of Vitamin B3 (Niacin)?
Pellagra.
What condition is associated with excessive iron accumulation in the body?
Haemochromatosis.
Is Vitamin K water-soluble or fat-soluble?
Fat-soluble.
What is a key function of Vitamin A?
It is essential for vision and immune function.
What are iron-sulfur proteins?
Components of complex I of the electron transport chain.
What dietary pattern is associated with a decreased incidence of some chronic diseases?
Diets high in fruits and vegetables.
What is the RDA for Vitamin B1 for children aged 0-6 months?
0.2 mg.
Which cycle is associated with FAD as a coenzyme?
TCA cycle (Krebs cycle).
What is the disorder associated with potassium (K+) excess?
Hyperkalemia.
When does the closure of the neural tube occur after conception?
Between 22 and 28 days after conception.
What is the role of Folic acid (Vitamin B9)?
It is haematopoietic, involved in blood formation.
What is the disorder associated with phosphate (PO₄³⁻) excess?
Hyperphosphatemia.
What is the role of Vitamin B9 (Folate) in the body?
It is crucial for DNA synthesis and repair, and is especially important during pregnancy.
What is the disorder associated with magnesium (Mg²⁺) excess?
Hypermagnesemia.
What are the two main forms of Vitamin A?
Retinol and beta-carotene.
What can high doses of Vitamin A lead to?
Liver toxicity and teratogenicity.
What is a potential effect of β-carotene supplementation in smokers?
An increase in lung cancer mortality.
How do minerals contribute to the body's acid-base balance?
They help maintain acid-base balance (pH).
What is rhodopsin and where is it found?
Rhodopsin is found in the rod cells of the retina.
What are vitamins?
Organic compounds that are essential for normal growth and nutrition.
What rare deficiency can occur due to a lack of this nutrient?
Anaemia.
What are the toxic effects of hypervitaminosis C?
Low toxic effects, but there is a risk of developing renal oxalate stones.
What is hypovitaminosis A?
A deficiency of vitamin A due to inadequate dietary intake or absorption.
What is the primary function of Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)?
Required in two essential reactions, particularly in rapidly dividing cells.
In which developmental processes is retinoic acid involved?
Embryonic development and organogenesis.
What hormone is the active form of Vitamin D that regulates blood levels of Ca²⁺ and PO₄³⁻?
Calcitriol (1,25 - OH₂ - D₃).
What are some potential complications of iron accumulation in haemochromatosis?
Liver cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma, diabetes, arthritis, and heart failure.
When does Vitamin K absorption normalize in newborns?
When food absorption starts, but this may be delayed in preterm infants.
What is a key aspect of regulation related to waste?
Regulation of waste in the body.
What hormone is produced by the parathyroid gland?
Parathyroid hormone (PTH).
Why might individuals need vitamin supplementation?
To address deficiencies, support health, or enhance performance.
What food sources are rich in Copper?
Shellfish, seeds, nuts, whole grains, and dark chocolate.
Is Vitamin C water-soluble or fat-soluble?
Water-soluble.
What are the three key hormones that regulate blood levels of calcium and phosphate?
Calcitriol, Parathyroid hormone (PTH), and Calcitonin.
What should be considered before starting vitamin supplementation?
Individual dietary needs, potential interactions with medications, and RDA guidelines.
In what form is iron present in non-heme proteins?
Complexed to sulfur.
What is the disorder associated with sodium (Na+) deficiency?
Hyponatremia.
What is the haematocrit level of the woman, and how does it compare to the reference range?
Her haematocrit is 0.32, which is below the reference range of 0.36 – 0.46.
What does FH4•C indicate?
It indicates tetrahydrofolate containing a one-carbon unit at the formyl, methylene, or methyl level of oxidation.
What is Vitamin B-Complex?
A group of water-soluble vitamins that play important roles in cell metabolism.
What is the RDA for Vitamin B2 for adolescents aged 10-18 years?
1.2 mg.
What is the RDA of Vitamin A for children aged 4-6 years?
450 micrograms.
What are some key minerals mentioned?
Sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, phosphate, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper.
What is the RDA for Vitamin B12 for children aged 4-6 years?
0.6 µg.
What coordination issue is associated with hypovitaminosis E?
Ataxia, characterized by poor muscle coordination with tremors.
What is hypervitaminosis?
A toxicity of fat-soluble vitamins.
What are macroelements?
Minerals required in quantities over 100 mg/day.
Why is Vitamin K important for newborn infants?
Newborns typically have low levels of Vitamin K.
What is the role of Gamma-carboxylase in blood clotting?
It is involved in the activation of Vitamin K-dependent proteins necessary for blood clotting.
Can Vitamin E be toxic?
Yes, excessive intake can lead to bleeding problems.
What are the effects of deficiency of this nutrient?
It affects growth, skin integrity, and wound healing.
What is the active form of Vitamin K?
Vitamin K (Hydroquinone).
What role do B vitamins play in metabolism?
They serve as coenzymes in many reactions.
What can excessive intake of synthetic Vitamin K (menadione) cause?
Liver toxicity and haemolytic anaemia.
What organs can accumulate excess iron in haemochromatosis?
Heart, liver, and pancreas.
What happens to excess water-soluble vitamins?
They are excreted in urine.
What is the primary function of minerals?
To support structural and functional roles in the body.
What beneficial property does Vitamin C have?
Antioxidant properties that may prevent the development of chronic diseases.
What is an important function of iron in the body?
It serves as an important component of heme, binding oxygen and participating in redox reactions.
What condition can copper deficiency lead to in premature infants?
Anaemia and cardiomyopathy.
What processes does Vitamin B12 participate in?
Nucleic acid synthesis, production of erythrocytes, and recycling of folates.
What are common dietary sources of Zinc?
Meat, shellfish, legumes, seeds, nuts, dairy, and whole grains.
What are some other effects of vitamin A deficiency?
Growth impediment and impaired wound healing.
What are heme-containing proteins?
Proteins that include hemoglobin and myoglobin, which contain iron that binds to oxygen.
What is the key role of Vitamin B9 (Folic Acid)?
It plays a key role in one-carbon metabolism essential for biosynthesis of several compounds.
What are the potential toxic effects of excess Copper?
Liver damage and gastrointestinal distress.
What can untreated pellagra lead to?
Death.
What is TMP and where is it found?
TMP is deoxythymidine monophosphate, a pyrimidine found in DNA.
What are the roles of phosphate ions (PO4^3-) in the body?
They are components of DNA, RNA, and ATP, and are involved in phosphorylation.
When should folic acid supplementation begin for women wishing to conceive?
Before conception and especially during the first trimester.
How much iron do menstruating women require daily?
About 2 mg/day.
What is the daily iron requirement for pregnant women?
About 3 mg/day.
What is the role of Ascorbic acid?
It is Vitamin C, important for various bodily functions.
What is retinal dehydrogenase's relationship with Vitamin B2?
It is an enzyme that utilizes FAD as a coenzyme.
What is the disorder associated with magnesium (Mg²⁺) deficiency?
Hypomagnesemia.
What is the function of Magnesium in the body?
It plays a role in muscle function and energy production.
What are some food sources of Vitamin A?
Liver, fish, dairy products, and orange or green vegetables.
What is one of the key functions of Vitamin C?
It acts as an antioxidant, protecting cells from harmful effects of reactive oxygen species (ROS).
What is a deficiency of Vitamin E associated with?
Neuromuscular problems and impaired immune function.
What can excessive intake of Vitamin A cause?
Toxicity, leading to symptoms like nausea and headaches.
What is hypervitaminosis K?
A condition with no clear toxicity associated with Vitamin K (phylloquinone and menaquinone).
Give examples of microelements.
Iron, zinc, copper, etc.
How does high caloric intake affect B vitamin demand?
It increases the demand for B vitamins.
What are the roles of retinoic acid in cell biology?
Growth, differentiation, and proliferation of cells.
What effect does high protein intake have on vitamin demand?
It increases the demand for pyridoxine (Vitamin B6).
Where is Vitamin D primarily metabolized?
In the liver and kidneys.
Why are newborn infants at risk for hypovitaminosis K?
Their gut is sterile and lacks a source of Vitamin K.
What are the two types of vitamins based on solubility?
Water-soluble and fat-soluble.
What are some examples of water-soluble vitamins?
Vitamin C and the B vitamins.
What is the role of Vitamin B3 (Niacin) in the body?
It forms part of NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), which serves as an electron carrier.
What proteins contain heme?
Hemoglobin and myoglobin.
How does copper deficiency affect ATP production?
It impairs ATP production by failing to synthesize adequate amounts of cytochrome c oxidase.
Which hormone is produced by the thyroid gland?
Calcitonin.
What can result from Copper deficiency?
Anemia, bone abnormalities, and immune dysfunction.
What role do calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) play in muscle function?
They are essential for the contraction of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.
What is the RDA of Vitamin A for children aged 0-6 months?
375 micrograms.
Why is folic acid important during pregnancy?
It is crucial for nucleic acid synthesis and rapid cell growth during neural tube development.
What are the two main categories of micronutrients?
Vitamins and minerals.
What is an example of a water-soluble vitamin?
Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C).
What is the primary function of Vitamin K?
It is crucial for blood clotting.
What is the periconception period for folic acid supplementation?
4 weeks before and 8 weeks after conception.
Which vitamins are classified as water-soluble?
Vitamins B and C.
What is the disorder associated with phosphate (PO₄³⁻) deficiency?
Hypophosphatemia.
What is the role of Thiamine (Vitamin B1)?
Energy-releasing.
What are some potential consequences of mineral deficiencies?
Arrhythmia, cerebral edema, dehydration.
What can lead to mineral deficiencies?
Increase in renal excretion, vomiting, and diarrhea.
What are common sources of Vitamin A?
Liver, kidney, cream, butter, egg yolk, and yellow and dark green vegetables and fruits (beta-carotene).
What types of biological molecules can free radicals damage?
Nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids.
What role do minerals play in nerve and muscle function?
They maintain nerve and muscle excitability.
What is the primary dietary source of Vitamin K?
Phylloquinone, found in green leafy vegetables.
What is the chemical symbol for Iron?
Fe.
What causes the symptoms of scurvy?
Deficiency in the hydroxylation of collagen, resulting in defective connective tissue.
In which population is haemochromatosis most common?
Persons of Northern European ancestry.
What are common dietary sources of Iron?
Red meat, poultry, fish, lentils, beans, and fortified cereals.
What role does retinal play in vision?
It is used to produce the visual pigment rhodopsin.
What condition is characterized by corneal softening and opacity due to vitamin A deficiency?
Keratomalacia.
What is the chemical symbol for Zinc?
Zn.
What type of mineral is Copper?
Trace mineral.
What is dietary supplementation of vitamins?
The process of adding vitamins to the diet to meet nutritional needs.
What symptoms can arise from Vitamin B6 deficiency?
Neurological symptoms and anemia.
What are the two main forms of Vitamin K?
Vitamin K1 (phylloquinone) and Vitamin K2 (menaquinone).
How can zinc deficiency affect a patient's health?
It can prevent healing of gastrointestinal lesions and increase susceptibility to infection.
What can a deficiency in Vitamin K lead to?
Increased bleeding and bruising.
What can cause a deficiency in Vitamin B7 (Biotin)?
Eating raw eggs.
What role do redox enzymes play in the body?
They include proteins that function in the electron transport chain, such as cytochromes.
How do calcium ions (Ca2+) contribute to blood functions?
They are involved in blood clotting and hormonal signaling.
What is the significance of magnesium ions (Mg2+) in enzymatic reactions?
Mg2+ is an important cofactor for many enzymes that utilize ATP.
What is calcinosis?
Deposition of calcium around the joints and arteries.
What is hypovitaminosis E?
A deficiency of vitamin E, primarily affecting premature infants.
What are some examples of one-carbon donors for tetrahydrofolate?
Serine, glycine, and histidine.
Which vitamins are considered fat-soluble?
Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, Vitamin K.
What is a key function of Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)?
It helps convert carbohydrates into energy.
What is the RDA for Vitamin B6 for pregnant women?
1.4 mg.
Name a mineral that is considered a micronutrient.
Iron.
What is the role of Zinc in the body?
It is essential for immune function and enzyme activity.
What is the primary function of Vitamin A?
Vision; promotion of growth; differentiation and maintenance of epithelial tissues; gene expression; maintenance of reproduction.
What are common sources of Vitamin A?
Liver, kidney, cream, butter, egg yolk, and yellow/dark green vegetables and fruits (beta-carotene).
What is the term for Sodium excess?
Hypernatremia.
What is the primary function of Vitamin D?
Calcium uptake.
What role does Vitamin C play in collagen stability?
It facilitates hydroxylation, which is essential for collagen folding and stability.
What are B vitamins essential for?
Normal metabolism.
What causes hypovitaminosis K?
Disrupted absorption of lipids, absence of gut bacteria that synthesize Vitamin K, and use of anticoagulation drugs like warfarin.
How are vitamins classified?
Into water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins.
What are common symptoms of hypovitaminosis K?
Susceptibility to bleeding and bruising, anemia, weakness, nosebleeds, bleeding gums, heavy menstrual bleeding, and gastrointestinal bleeding.
In which types of metabolism do B vitamins participate?
Carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism.
What is Vitamin B2 also known as?
Riboflavin.
Which nutrients are involved in the regulation process?
Minerals and water.
What is one of the maintenance roles of retinoic acid?
Maintenance of epithelia.
What form of THF is needed for nucleotide synthesis in the context of Vitamin B12?
N5-methyl form of THF.
Which gland produces Calcitriol?
Kidneys.
Which vitamin is known for its role in vision and immune function?
Vitamin A.
What is isotretinoin used for?
It is used to treat severe acne.
What are some key functions of Copper in the body?
Copper is essential for iron metabolism, the formation of connective tissue, and the functioning of the immune system.
What does NADH do in the electron transport chain?
Transfers electrons from the TCA cycle to complex I of the electron transport chain.
What role does iron play in hemoglobin?
Iron binds to oxygen.
Why is cow's milk unsuitable for premature infants regarding copper?
Because it is low in copper.
What can result from hypercalcemia due to hypervitaminosis D?
Deposition of calcium in organs, particularly arteries and kidneys.
What is the consequence of impaired ATP production in the heart?
It can lead to pathology in the heart, where energy demand is high.
What does tetrahydrofolate do in one-carbon metabolism?
It receives one-carbon fragments from donors and transfers them to intermediates in the synthesis of amino acids, purines, and TMP.
What is the role of hemoglobin?
To bind oxygen in the blood for transport.
What is the disorder associated with sodium (Na+) excess?
Hypernatremia.
What happens to metabolism in case of ATP deficiency?
It impairs virtually all of metabolism because ATP cannot be made or utilized adequately.
In adults, what conditions are associated with hypovitaminosis E?
Defective lipid absorption or transport, such as cystic fibrosis and abetalipoproteinemia.
What is the RDA for Vitamin B3 for adults (women) aged 19-65 years?
14 mg.
What is the RDA of Vitamin D for adults (men) over 65 years?
600 IU.
How are fat-soluble vitamins absorbed?
Alongside dietary fats into lymph and transported by carrier proteins.
What neurological condition can hypovitaminosis E lead to?
Peripheral neuropathy.
What condition can result from calcification of soft tissues?
Kidney stones.
What is the RDA for Vitamin B7 (Biotin) for adults (women) aged >65 years?
30 µg.
What is the primary function of Vitamin D?
Calcium uptake.
What is hypervitaminosis?
A condition resulting from excessive intake of vitamins, particularly water-soluble vitamins.
What is a common symptom of vitamin A deficiency?
Night blindness.
What is the chemical symbol for Copper?
Cu
What is the primary cause of iron deficiency?
Generally due to insufficient dietary uptake.
What is Vitamin K primarily known for?
Its role in blood clotting.
Which enzyme complex is FAD a coenzyme for?
Succinate dehydrogenase/complex II.
What is a potential consequence of iron excess?
Iron poisoning.
What role does FAD play in metabolism?
It acts as a coenzyme for various dehydrogenases.
What is a major consequence of hypervitaminosis D?
Elevated levels of calcium in the blood (hypercalcemia).
What are redox enzymes?
Proteins that function in the electron transport chain, such as cytochromes.
What are the three Ds associated with pellagra?
Dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia.
What is the coenzyme form of Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)?
FAD (Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide).
What condition can form due to hypercalciuria?
Formation of kidney stones.
What is the recommended daily intake of folic acid for Mrs. Y?
At least 0.4 mg/day.
What is the haemoglobin concentration of the woman, and how does it compare to the normal range?
Her haemoglobin concentration is 90 g/L, which is below the normal range of 120 – 160 g/L.
What is the RDA of Vitamin K for lactating women?
55 micrograms.
Which vitamins are classified as fat-soluble?
Vitamins A, D, E, and K.
What is the disorder associated with calcium (Ca²⁺) excess?
Hypercalcemia.
What is a common blood-related condition caused by hypovitaminosis E?
Haemolytic anaemia, where erythrocytes are susceptible to rupture.
What is the disorder associated with chloride (Cl-) excess?
Hyperchloremia.
What muscle-related issue can occur due to hypovitaminosis E?
Muscle weakness, also known as myopathy.
Where are fat-soluble vitamins stored in the body?
In the liver and fat tissues.
What is the RDA for Vitamin B5 for children aged 1-3 years?
2.0 mg.
What excess condition can result from Vitamin A?
Liver toxicity; birth defects.
What sensation can be decreased as a result of hypovitaminosis E?
Decreased vibratory sensation.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin D?
Rickets (children) and osteomalacia (adults).
What are the dietary sources of Calcium?
Milk and dairy products, soybeans, dark green vegetables (kale, broccoli, spinach).
What is the primary function of Vitamin E?
Antioxidant.
How common are deficiencies in fat-soluble vitamins?
Relatively rare due to storage; intake is usually required in weeks.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin K?
Defective blood clotting.
What is the function of Copper?
Scavenges superoxide and other reactive oxygen species; associated with oxygenase enzymes like cytochrome c oxidase.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin B5?
Rare and not well-established.
In which tissues are the effects of Vitamin B12 most prominent?
In rapidly dividing cells, such as erythropoietic tissue of bone marrow.
What was the zinc concentration in the serum of the 34-year-old man?
Less than 1 μmol/L (6.5 μg/dL).
What are the primary functions of Vitamin C?
Antioxidant protection, collagen synthesis, and immune function.
What role does Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) play in the body?
It acts as a coenzyme for a variety of enzymes, especially in amino acid metabolism.
What is hypervitaminosis D?
A condition characterized by elevated levels of vitamin D in the body.
What can a deficiency in Vitamin C lead to?
Scurvy, characterized by fatigue, gum disease, and skin issues.
What is an important function of iron in the body?
It serves as an important component of heme, binding oxygen and participating in redox reactions.
What are some common forms of vitamin supplements?
Tablets, capsules, powders, and liquids.
Is Vitamin E recommended for the prevention of chronic diseases?
No, it is NOT recommended for prevention of chronic diseases.
How are fat-soluble vitamins absorbed in the body?
They are absorbed along with dietary fat in the intestines.
What is hypercalciuria?
Elevated levels of calcium in urine.
What was the outcome for subjects in the Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study trial who received high doses of Vitamin E?
They lacked cardiovascular benefit and had an increased incidence of stroke.
Which vitamins are classified as fat-soluble?
Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, and Vitamin K.
What is the RDA of Vitamin E for adults (women) aged 19-65 years?
15 milligrams.
What are the two main categories of micronutrients?
Vitamins and minerals.
Which vitamins are classified as B-complex?
Thiamine (B1), Riboflavin (B2), Niacin (B3), Pantothenic acid (B5), Biotin (B7), Pyridoxine (B6), Folic acid (B9), Cobalamin (B12).
What are the main vitamins included in the B-Complex group?
B1 (Thiamine), B2 (Riboflavin), B3 (Niacin), B5 (Pantothenic Acid), B6 (Pyridoxine), B7 (Biotin), B9 (Folate), and B12 (Cobalamin).
What visual impairment can result from hypovitaminosis E?
Impaired vision due to retinal degeneration.
What is the function of Folic acid (Vitamin B9)?
It is important for haematopoiesis (blood formation).
What is the RDA for Vitamin C for adults (men) aged 19-65 years?
90 mg.
What are common food sources of B-Complex vitamins?
Whole grains, meat, eggs, dairy products, legumes, seeds, and leafy greens.
What is the term for Sodium deficiency?
Hyponatremia.
What are common sources of Sodium?
Ubiquitous in foods of animal origin and in dietary salt (NaCl in preserved, prepared, and processed foods).
What is the term for Potassium deficiency?
Hypokalemia.
What is the primary function of Vitamin E?
Antioxidant.
How are surplus fat-soluble vitamins excreted?
Surplus vitamins are usually stored instead of excreted.
What are common sources of Vitamin E?
Vegetable oils, liver, eggs.
What role does Zinc play in the body?
Contained in approximately 100 enzymes associated with carbohydrate and energy metabolism, protein synthesis and degradation, and nucleic acid synthesis.
What can excess water-soluble vitamins cause?
Usually hypervitaminosis does not occur, but it can happen at very high dosage or problems in the removal mechanism (except Vitamin B3 & B6).
Are claims that massive doses of Vitamin C can prevent the common cold and cancer grounded?
No, those claims are ungrounded.
What are the established effects of Vitamin B5 deficiency?
Deficiency is not well-established.
Why are minerals important for the body?
They play key roles in processes such as bone formation, fluid balance, and nerve transmission.
What is a potential toxicity associated with excessive Iron intake?
Iron overload can lead to organ damage.
What can result from mineral deficiencies?
Common disorders such as anemia, osteoporosis, and impaired immune function.
Which vitamin is essential for calcium absorption and bone health?
Vitamin D.
What are the symptoms of Vitamin B12 deficiency?
Symptoms of megaloblastic anaemia.
What is the primary function of Vitamin B7 (Biotin)?
It serves as a coenzyme for the synthesis of fat, glycogen, and amino acids.
What is the function of FMN and FAD in relation to enzymes?
They are coenzymes that activate enzymes.
What should be regularly checked in patients receiving intravenous feeding?
Their micronutrient status.
What are the potential toxic effects of excessive Zinc intake?
Nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, stomach cramps, diarrhea, and headaches.
Can excessive vitamin supplementation be harmful?
Yes, it can lead to toxicity and adverse health effects.
What role does Vitamin D play in the body?
It helps regulate calcium and phosphorus, promoting healthy bones.
What is the role of myoglobin?
To bind oxygen in muscle tissues.
What are the two types of vitamins based on solubility?
Water-soluble and fat-soluble.
What complex is required in all reactions involving ATP?
ATP readily forms a complex with magnesium ions, which is required for all ATP-related reactions.
Which enzyme does acyl CoA dehydrogenase relate to?
It is another enzyme that uses FAD as a coenzyme.
What is the RDA of Vitamin E for pregnant women?
15 milligrams.
Which vitamin is associated with blood formation?
Folic acid (Vitamin B9).
What are some examples of minerals?
Sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, phosphate, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper.
What can result from the storage of fat-soluble vitamins?
Hypervitaminosis.
What reflex-related condition can result from hypovitaminosis E?
Areflexia, which is the loss of reflexes in limbs.
Why are deficiencies of water-soluble vitamins relatively common?
Because they are not stored in the body.
What is the role of Biotin (Vitamin B7)?
Energy metabolism and fatty acid synthesis.
How are water-soluble vitamins transported in the body?
They travel freely in the body without the need for carrier proteins (except B12).
What is the function of Calcium?
Component of bone, muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, blood clotting, and hormonal signaling.
What are common sources of Magnesium?
Meat, fish, vegetables, nuts, legumes, and grains (wheat bran, cereal, and oats).
What are common sources of Vitamin K?
Cabbage, kale, spinach, egg yolk, and liver; synthesized by gut bacteria.
What can excess fat-soluble vitamins cause?
Usually causes hypervitaminosis.
What is the term for Iron deficiency?
Iron deficiency.
Name the main fat-soluble vitamins.
Vitamins A, D, E, and K.
How can mineral excesses affect health?
They can lead to toxicity and health issues such as kidney stones or heart problems.
Which vitamin is important for blood clotting?
Vitamin K.
What can folate deficiency result in?
Neural tube defects such as spina bifida and anencephaly.
What condition is indicated by the symptoms of tiredness and paleness in the 45-year-old woman?
Iron deficiency anaemia.
Which enzyme complex does FAD serve as a coenzyme for?
Succinate dehydrogenase/complex II.
What role does FAD play in the Electron Transport Chain?
It acts as a coenzyme for NADH dehydrogenase/complex I.
What is the disorder associated with potassium (K+) deficiency?
Hypokalemia.
Which vitamin is known as Vitamin B1?
Thiamine.
What vitamin is referred to as Vitamin B12?
Cobalamin.
Which vitamin is known as Vitamin A?
Retinol.
What happens when there is an iron deficiency?
It impairs oxygen transport and energy metabolism processes.
What is the significance of Cobalamin (Vitamin B12)?
It is crucial for red blood cell formation and neurological function.
What are examples of fat-soluble vitamins?
A, D, E, K.
What disorder is associated with deficiencies or excesses of minerals?
Arrhythmia.
What is a potential consequence of osteoporosis?
Increased risk of fractures.
What is the function of Potassium?
Maintain nerve and muscle function.
What are common sources of Vitamin D?
Sun, fatty fish, liver, egg yolk, and Vitamin D-fortified foods (e.g., milk and cereals).
What are common sources of Vitamin E?
Vegetable oils, liver, eggs.
What is the term for Calcium excess?
Hypercalcemia.
What is the function of Vitamin B3?
Electron transfer.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin B3?
Pellagra.
What are common sources of Vitamin B6?
Meat, vegetables, grains.
What are common sources of Vitamin C?
Fruits, vegetables.
Name a water-soluble vitamin.
Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C).
What is the role of FMN in relation to Vitamin B2?
FMN is also a coenzyme for vitamin-activating enzymes.
What is the disorder associated with chloride (Cl-) deficiency?
Hypochloremia.
What role does iron play in the body?
It is required to maintain normal amounts of haemoglobin and is central to oxygen transport and energy metabolism.
Which B vitamin is essential for red blood cell formation?
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin).
What is the RDA of Vitamin K for children aged 1-3 years?
6 micrograms.
What can result from a deficiency in Vitamin B12?
Anemia and neurological issues.
What type of disturbance can excess minerals cause?
Acid-base disturbance.
How are most water-soluble vitamins absorbed?
Directly into the blood.
Which vitamin is known as Cobalamin?
Vitamin B12.
How are water-soluble vitamins absorbed?
They are absorbed through simple intestinal absorption into blood.
What is the term for Potassium excess?
Hyperkalemia.
What excess condition can result from Vitamin D?
Elevated Ca2+ in blood and urine; deposition of calcium in organs.
What is the primary function of Vitamin K?
Gamma-carboxylation of proteins, blood clotting.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin E?
Haemolytic anaemia, neurological & neuromuscular dysfunctions, retinopathy.
What is the function of Vitamin B7?
Coenzyme in synthesis of fat, glycogen, and amino acids.
What are common sources of Vitamin B12?
Meat, liver, milk, eggs.
What is the primary function of Vitamin A?
Vision; promotion of growth; differentiation and maintenance of epithelial tissues; gene expression; maintenance of reproduction.
What is the RDA for Vitamin B9 (Folate) for lactating women?
500 µg.
What is the function of Sodium?
Maintain osmotic pressure, acid-base balance (pH), and nerve and muscle excitability.
What is the function of Sodium in the body?
Maintains osmotic pressure, acid-base balance (pH), and nerve and muscle excitability.
What can cause a deficiency of a micronutrient?
Inadequate intake, increased demand, poor absorption, inefficient utilization, or increased loss.
How are fat-soluble vitamins transported in the body?
By carrier proteins and receptors.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin D?
Rickets (children) and osteomalacia (adults).
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin B1?
Beriberi, Wernicke-Korsakoff (in alcoholics).
What is the function of Magnesium?
Cofactor for many enzymes and involved in muscle contraction.
How common are deficiencies in water-soluble vitamins?
Relatively common due to no storage; intake is usually required in frequent doses (1-3 days).
What is the term for Magnesium excess?
Hypermagnesemia.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin K?
Defective blood clotting.
What is the term for Zinc deficiency?
Zinc deficiency.
What are common sources of Vitamin B7?
Yeast products, legumes, nuts.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin B2?
Skin lesions.
What are common sources of Vitamin B7?
Yeast products, legumes, nuts.
What are common sources of Vitamin B9?
Fresh green vegetables, liver.
What type of vitamins are Vitamin D, E, and K?
Fat-soluble vitamins.
What are examples of water-soluble vitamins?
B-complex, C.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin A?
Night blindness; keratomalacia; abnormal pregnancy; retardation of growth; wound healing.
What are common sources of Vitamin D?
Sun, fatty fish, liver, egg yolk, and Vitamin D-fortified foods (e.g., milk and cereals).
What is the function of Magnesium?
Important cofactor for many enzymes, involved in ATP utilization.
What are the dietary sources of Iron?
Meat, legumes, dark green vegetables (spinach, Swiss chard), whole grains, wheat germ, nuts, and legumes.
What is the primary function of Vitamin K?
Gamma-carboxylation of proteins, blood clotting.
What is the function of Iron?
Important component of heme, binds oxygen, and participates in redox reactions.
What are dietary sources of Copper?
Cheese, liver, mussels and oysters, poultry, legumes, wheat, cereal, yeast, mushrooms, fruit, nuts, chocolate, and cocoa.
What are common sources of Vitamin B5?
Widely distributed.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin B1?
Beriberi, Wernicke-Korsakoff (in alcoholics).
What is the function of Vitamin B2?
Electron transfer.
What are common sources of Vitamin B3?
Meat, yeast products, fruits, vegetables, synthesized from tryptophan.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin B12?
Anemia.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin A?
Night blindness; keratomalacia; abnormal pregnancy; retardation of growth; wound healing.
What sensory issue related to body position can occur due to hypovitaminosis E?
Poor proprioception, affecting the sensation of one’s position and movement.
What excess condition can result from Vitamin A?
Liver toxicity; birth defects.
What excess condition can result from Vitamin D?
Elevated Ca2+ in blood and urine; deposition of calcium in organs.
Are water-soluble vitamins stored in the body?
No, they are not stored (except B12).
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin B2?
Skin lesions.
What is the function of Vitamin B5?
Component of coenzyme A.
What are common sources of Vitamin B6?
Meat, vegetables, grains.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin B7?
Depression, dermatitis, muscle pain.
What is the function of Vitamin B1?
Coenzyme in carbohydrate metabolism.
What is the function of Vitamin B5?
Component of coenzyme A.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin B7?
Depression, dermatitis, muscle pain.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin C?
Scurvy.
What is the function of Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)?
Energy metabolism.
How are fat-soluble vitamins absorbed?
Bile salts are required and they are absorbed into lymph.
What is the primary function of Chloride?
Ubiquitous in dietary salt (ingested as NaCl).
What role does Calcium play in the body?
Component of bone, involved in muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, blood clotting, and hormonal signaling.
What are common sources of Vitamin B1?
Grain, yeast products, pork.
How are surplus water-soluble vitamins excreted?
Surplus vitamins are removed by urine.
What are common sources of Vitamin B2?
Milk, eggs.
What are common sources of Vitamin K?
Cabbage, kale, spinach, egg yolk, liver, and synthesized by gut bacteria.
What is the function of Vitamin B12?
Coenzyme for reactions: Homocysteine → methionine, Methymalonyl CoA → succinyl CoA.
What are common sources of Vitamin B1?
Grain, yeast products, pork.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin B5?
Rare and not well-established.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin B6?
Neurological symptoms and anemia.
What are the main sources of Potassium?
Unprocessed foods such as meats, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and legumes.
What is the function of Vitamin B1?
Coenzyme in carbohydrate metabolism.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin E?
Haemolytic anaemia, neurological & neuromuscular dysfunctions, retinopathy.
What is the primary function of Iron?
Important component of heme, binds oxygen, and participates in redox reactions.
What are common sources of Vitamin B3?
Meat, yeast products, fruits, vegetables, synthesized from tryptophan.
What is the term for Copper deficiency?
Copper deficiency.
What is the function of Vitamin B6?
Coenzyme of various enzymes, particularly in amino acid metabolism.
What is the function of Vitamin B9?
One-carbon metabolism, coenzyme in nucleic acid and amino acid metabolism.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin B9?
Megaloblastic anemia, neural tube defects.
What is the function of Vitamin C?
Maintains connective tissues, iron absorption, antioxidant.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin C?
Scurvy.
What are common sources of Vitamin B2?
Milk, eggs.
What is the function of Vitamin B9?
One-carbon metabolism, coenzyme in nucleic acid and amino acid metabolism.
What is the function of Vitamin B12?
Coenzyme for reactions: Homocysteine → methionine, Methymalonyl CoA → succinyl CoA.
Where are fat-soluble vitamins stored?
In the liver and fat tissues.
What is the term for Calcium deficiency?
Hypocalcemia.
What is the function of Vitamin B2?
Electron transfer.
What is the term for Magnesium deficiency?
Hypomagnesemia.
What are common sources of Zinc?
Grains (oats, cereal, wheat), liver, meat, oysters, nuts, and eggs.
What is the function of Zinc?
Involved in carbohydrate and energy metabolism, protein synthesis, and nucleic acid synthesis.
What are common sources of Vitamin B9?
Fresh green vegetables, liver.
What are common sources of Vitamin C?
Fruits, vegetables.
What are common sources of Vitamin B5?
Widely distributed.
What is the function of Copper?
Scavenges superoxide and other reactive oxygen species; associated with oxygenase enzymes.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin B6?
Neurological symptoms and anemia.
What is the function of Vitamin B7?
Coenzyme in synthesis of fat, glycogen, and amino acids.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin B12?
Anemia.
What is the function of Vitamin B3?
Electron transfer.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin B9?
Megaloblastic anemia, neural tube defects.
What are common sources of Vitamin B12?
Meat, liver, milk, eggs.
What deficiency is associated with Vitamin B3?
Pellagra.
What is the function of Vitamin B6?
Coenzyme of various enzymes, particularly in amino acid metabolism.
What is the function of Vitamin C?
Maintains connective tissues, iron absorption, antioxidant.
