Goals are the desired outcomes, while constraints are the limitations that affect how those goals can be achieved.
Stationary vs movement and closed (non-variable) vs open (variable).
Regulatory demands are essential elements that determine the movement, while non-regulatory demands are features that are not essential but may influence movement.
Operant conditioning is learning to associate a certain response with a certain consequence, where behaviors that are beneficial and rewarded tend to be repeated.
It is a process through which a person learns to predict relationships between stimuli.
Sensitization refers to increased responsiveness following a threatening or noxious stimulus.
It helped therapists to set up therapy sessions in order to help patients improve their function and to structure the environment/task during the therapy.
The gradual shift from short-term to long-term learning is reflected in a move along the continuum of neural modifiability.
Procedural learning focuses on 'how' to perform tasks, while declarative learning involves 'knowing' facts and information.
Motor Control includes reflexive, automatic, voluntary, and adaptive movements.
Learning is the acquisition of knowledge or ability.
Mental practice involves cognitive rehearsal of movement without physical execution, activating neural circuits related to motor programs.
Structural changes underpin long-term memory.
By providing 'feel good' therapy, giving more rests, omitting challenging exercises, or seemingly punishing them when they feel better by making them do more exercises or spend less time with them.
Practice is essential in procedural learning as it helps to reinforce the skills and make them automatic over time.
Procedural learning is typically unconscious, as individuals may not be able to articulate how they perform the learned skills.
Multiple modalities including verbal, visual, demonstration, and kinesthetic.
Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Differences in ability and/or presence of impairments in sensory, cognitive, and/or motor areas.
It is learning that involves reinforcement and punishment, often through trial-and-error.
Key attributes of tasks include complexity, organization, and the degree of variability.
Environmental contexts can affect performance by introducing variability, constraints, and opportunities for practice.
Less cognitive attention is needed, movement is refined, and efficiency improves.
Variability in tasks is significant as it prepares learners for real-world situations and enhances adaptability.
Motor learning is a process of acquiring the capability for skilled action, resulting from experience or practice, and produces relatively permanent changes in behavior.
Positive reinforcement involves adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior, while negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.
Movement refers to the physical act of changing position or location, which is a fundamental aspect of motor control and involves the coordination of muscles and nervous system responses.
Habituation is the decreased responsiveness that occurs as a result of repeated exposure to a nonpainful stimulus.
The main processes involved in Motor Control are planning, programming, and execution.
The nervous system appropriately adjusts for force, tone, and timing during movement.
Practice level (amount or intensity), feedback, Knowledge of Results (KR), practice conditions, whole vs part training, transfer, mental practice, and guidance vs discovery learning.
Little to no cognitive demand, focus on skill itself and strategies.
Movement is performed with little to no cognitive demand.
Stepping on an escalator, lifting luggage from an airport conveyor, moving through a revolving door.
Explicit memories, also known as Declarative (Explicit) Learning.
Short-term changes are associated with increased synaptic efficacy.
Procedural learning is a type of implicit learning that involves acquiring skills and habits through practice and repetition, often without conscious awareness.
An example of procedural learning is riding a bicycle, where the skill is developed through practice rather than through verbal instructions.
Choose an environment which is free of distractions.
Task organization helps in structuring practice sessions and can enhance skill acquisition by providing clear goals and feedback.
Discovery learning promotes greater problem-solving, self-correction, and greater independence in learners.
A specific type of terminal feedback about the outcome of the movement, in terms of the movement's goal.
More implicit learning with high repetition, consistency, and errorless training is recommended.
Sitting in a moving automobile, catching a ball, walking down a crowded hall, carrying a wiggling child.
Augmented feedback is a specific type of extrinsic feedback that can facilitate the achievement of goals and motivate the learner.
Awareness, attention, and reflection.
Reflex pathways are involved in the mechanisms of non-associative forms of learning.
A person can see how far they can sway without pain (negative reinforcement) or without losing balance (positive reinforcement), and can also receive verbal praise from the physical therapist (positive reinforcement).
Predictable vs unpredictable.
B.F. Skinner is primarily associated with the concept of operant conditioning.
It optimizes their ability to adjust and self-assess future performance.
Motor learning cannot be measured directly; it is inferred from behavior.
Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.
Long-term memory includes non-associative learning (habituation & sensitization), associative learning (classical & operant conditioning), and procedural learning.
Individual (I), Task (T), and Environment (E)
To optimize learning, structure the PT session by setting clear goals, incorporating varied practice conditions, and providing appropriate feedback.
Factors include practice level, feedback, knowledge of results (KR), practice conditions, whole vs part training, transfer, mental practice, and guidance vs discovery learning.
Initial, Cognitive, Associative, Autonomous.
Physical guidance is useful in the initial stages of learning or when safety, self-confidence, or fear may be an issue, but over-reliance on it can be detrimental.
Distributed practice includes rest periods and may help avoid fatigue, leading to better retention and processing of information, while massed practice does not include such breaks.
Body mobility involves movement and flexibility, while stability focuses on maintaining a position or posture.
Manipulation tasks require active engagement and control of objects, while non-manipulation tasks do not involve handling objects.
Classical conditioning involves learning through association, while operant conditioning involves learning through consequences and reinforcement.
Yes, classical conditioning principles can be applied in therapeutic settings, such as in the treatment of phobias and anxiety disorders.
KR is terminal feedback about the outcome of the movement, in terms of the movement's goal.
Tasks should only be broken down into parts if composed of distinct subparts or if the whole task proves to be too difficult to learn.
Giving too much and redundant information.
'Use it or lose it' emphasizes the importance of practice in maintaining motor skills.
Memory is the outcome of learning, including the retention and storage of that knowledge or ability.
It consists of learning to pair two stimuli.
Extend therapy by integrating home exercises, encouraging self-monitoring, and utilizing technology for progress tracking.
Time, score, correctness/precision, success/failure, and externally presented material like analytics, graphs, charts, and flowcharts.
Requires attention, poor quality movements, usually stiff/rigid movement, and overcorrection is common.
To create a context for correct performance.
'How - to' learning is associated with procedural learning, which involves most motor skills.
Long-term memory is information related to people, places, or things, including factual knowledge and events, requiring more attention and awareness for conscious retrieval.
Postural control, mobility, and upper extremity (UE) function.
Procedural learning refers to our 'how-to' or skills acquisition, which is a significant aspect of motor learning and requires little to no attention.
The two main types of long-term memory are explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative) memory.
'Closed' skills occur in stable environments with no variability, while 'Open' skills occur in changing environments with variability.
Intrinsic (inherent) and Extrinsic (augmented), which includes Concurrent and Terminal feedback.
The amount of transfer depends on the similarity between two tasks or two environments.
Mental practice enhances learning by triggering the neural circuits underlying the motor programs for the movements, even when physical practice is not possible.
Operant conditioning is a learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment.
Practice conditions refer to the environment and context in which practice occurs, influencing skill acquisition.
Short-term and long-term memory.
Mental practice is effective when physical practice is not possible, such as when a patient is too weak to perform a motor skill.
Information about how successfully a skill is performed or the degree of achievement of a goal.
Sit, Stand, Lean on Table
Operant conditioning is a learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment.
Learning occurs primarily in the basal ganglia (striatum), cerebellum, etc.
The two main components of operant conditioning are reinforcement and punishment.
Habituation is learning to ignore a non-painful stimulus, resulting in a decreased response to repeated exposures to that stimulus.
Explicit instructions may be ineffective or even detrimental for patients with deficits in explicit memory.
Learning sequences on how to move using more declarative memory can benefit these patients.
Environmental Context and Body Stability/Transport.
An example of a specific motor skill acquired in adulthood is learning to play the guitar.
The types of learning mentioned are implicit and explicit learning.
It is classified as a complex skill due to the combination of body movement and object manipulation.
The assignment should be submitted as a PowerPoint slide deck with no more than 5 slides.
By making the training enjoyable and goal-oriented.
Early during therapy, but it should be reduced over time to avoid dependency.
Adequate time for practice and rest is crucial for effective learning and skill retention.
The acquisition and/or modification of movement.
Hold object while standing, Reach for glass while sitting, Writing at a desk
Walking on different surfaces, climbing stairs of different heights, drinking from mugs, glasses, cups.
Tasks or habits are performed automatically, without attention or conscious thought.
Design instruction that allows for mastery of simple to more complex tasks.
By enhancing the expectation of success and providing a positive experience.
Ivan Pavlov is most famously associated with classical conditioning, particularly through his experiments with dogs.
Provide step-by-step sequences and ask the patient to recite the steps verbally before performing the movements.
Through repetition and practice, patients can learn to perform movements without needing explicit instructions.
The practice level, which refers to the amount or intensity of practice, is crucial as it influences the acquisition and retention of motor skills.
Patients should participate as actively as possible and be cognitively challenged without being overwhelmed.
Whole training involves practicing the entire skill at once, while part training breaks the skill into smaller components for focused practice.
Guidance involves physically guiding the learner through the task and should be used only at the outset of teaching.
It helps detect errors from sensory information by providing references of correctness.
Practice levels include various stages and intensities of practice that enhance skill development.
Repetition reinforces learning and helps solidify motor pathways in the brain.
Walk, Run, Crawl
Carry a child while walking, Run to catch a ball, Drive an automobile, Propel a wheelchair
Factors include practice level (amount or intensity), feedback, knowledge of results (KR), practice conditions, whole vs part training, transfer, mental practice, and guidance vs discovery learning.
It provides temporary but immediate effects on the subject’s ability to perform a task.
Habituation exercises are used to decrease dizziness in vestibular rehabilitation.
The number of trials varies depending on the task.
The key components include the unconditioned stimulus (US), unconditioned response (UR), conditioned stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR).
The implications for neurorehabilitation involve understanding how learning processes can aid recovery.
The therapist should introduce more problem-solving, empower the patient, change environmental contexts, alter physical demands, and gradually decrease feedback.
In the advanced stage, the task can be made more complex by introducing fingerpicking techniques, playing faster tempos, or incorporating improvisation.
Practice conditions refer to the specific circumstances under which practice occurs, and they are important as they can significantly affect learning outcomes.
The two main types are classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Guidance learning involves providing learners with direct instructions or support, while discovery learning encourages learners to explore and find solutions independently.
It is a major factor influencing motor learning, especially when inherent feedback lacks the same information.
Feedback provides information about performance, helping to correct errors and improve skills.
Higher intensity practice can lead to greater engagement and improved skill acquisition.
Movement results from the dynamic interplay between multiple systems: Individual, Task, and Environment.
Climbing stairs at home, unlocking the front door, turning on the light switch in the kitchen.
Evaluate patient performance regularly.
Motor learning depends on the interaction between the individual, the task, and the environment.
Sensitization is a powerful sensory stimulus that enhances response, leading to an increased response to repeated exposures to that stimulus.
E-Stim is used after CNS lesions or nerve injuries for sensory re-education, often referred to as 'sensory bombardment'.
Key factors include practice level (amount or intensity), feedback, knowledge of results (KR), practice conditions, whole vs part training, transfer, mental practice, and guidance vs discovery learning.
It indicates whether the conditions of the task change from one attempt to another.
It refers to the information provided about the outcome of a performance.
Practicing a task with variable setting or in a random order improves learning and the ability to generalize.
The rate of improvement during any part of practice is linearly related (on a log scale) to the amount left to improve.
Whole training involves practicing the entire skill, while part training breaks the skill into smaller components.
Transference refers to the ability to apply learned skills to different but related tasks.
Procedural learning develops slowly through repetition of an act over many trials.
No, it should not be given 100% of the time; providing KR 1/3 of the time may be a good strategy.
Motor control refers to the processes involved in the execution of movement, while motor learning focuses on acquiring the capability for skilled action through practice and experience.
Feedback should be clear and concise, with a greater amount of augmented feedback, including hands-on guidance, while avoiding verbal bombardment and limiting details.
Therapy needs to be intensive, active, and challenging.
Concurrent (during activity) and Terminal (at the end).
Therapy should start early, focus on practice of tasks used in daily life, and include a high amount of variability.
Associative forms of learning involve making connections between two stimuli or between a stimulus and a response.
Transfer refers to the influence of previously learned skills on the learning of new skills.
Mental practice involves visualizing the execution of a skill, which can enhance performance and reinforce learning without physical movement.
It can critically influence learning in a positive or negative way.
Transfer refers to the influence of previously learned skills on the acquisition of new skills.
Interference occurs when learning new skills disrupts the retention of previously learned skills.
Variable practice may lead to better transferability and generalization of learning compared to constant practice.
The four stages of processing are encoding, consolidation, storage, and retrieval.
Declarative knowledge can be transformed into non-declarative knowledge with constant repetition.
Limiting degrees of freedom (DOF) and simplifying the movement can help in the initial stages.
Distributed practice might be better than massed practice.
Knowledge of Results (KR) refers to the information provided to learners about the outcome of their performance, which aids in skill refinement.
A classic example is Pavlov's dogs, where the dogs learned to associate the sound of a bell with food.
Guidance learning involves direct instruction and support, while discovery learning encourages learners to explore and find solutions independently.
Knowledge of results refers to the information provided to the learner about the outcome of their performance.
Salience refers to the relevance and importance of the skill being learned, impacting motivation and focus.
Learning occurs in the medial temporal lobe areas, hippocampus, and sensory association cortex.
Blocked practice may be better for conditions such as Parkinson’s Disease.
Random practice may be better for conditions such as stroke.
For patients, Knowledge of Results (KR) can sometimes be more effective than Knowledge of Performance (KP).
To make it easier, beginners can start with simple chords and practice finger placement slowly, focusing on one chord at a time.
Whole training involves practicing the entire task, while part training involves practicing components of a task in relation to its goals.
Transfer refers to the influence that practicing one skill has on the learning or performance of another skill.
Mental practice involves visualizing the performance of a skill, which can enhance actual performance.
The two types of augmented feedback are Knowledge of Results (KR) and Knowledge of Performance (KP).
It refers to tasks where the performer does not manipulate any objects.
Gentile’s scheme classifies motor skills based on two dimensions: the environment (open or closed) and the action requirements (body stability or body transport). For playing the guitar, it fits in the closed environment and body stability category.
Feedback provides learners with information about their performance, helping them to adjust and improve their skills.
Massed versus distributed practice and constant versus variable practice.
Mental practice involves visualizing the performance of a skill to enhance learning and retention.
It leads to improved training outcomes and helps with adherence to therapy.
Guidance provides direct instruction, while discovery learning encourages learners to explore and find solutions independently.
The therapist should clarify goals, facilitate understanding, minimize distractions, motivate the patient, assist in problem-solving, provide greater feedback, and use mental practice and demonstrations.
Knowledge of Performance (KP) refers to the knowledge of the quality of movement and movement characteristics.
Intrinsic (from the body) and Extrinsic (from an external source, such as instructions by a PT).
More self-correction, independence, and autonomy are encouraged, along with randomized and variable practice for transfer of learning and generalization.
Whole training involves practicing the entire skill, while part training breaks the skill into smaller components.
Focus practice on activities essential in daily life in a setting which is as realistic as possible.
Adjusting task challenge in small steps while encouraging improvement.
Classical conditioning works by pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.
Specificity ensures that practice closely resembles the actual performance context, enhancing skill transfer.
Age can affect the rate of learning and the ability to acquire new motor skills.
