p.14
Cholinergic and Adrenergic Receptors
What types of neurotransmitters are used in the Autonomic Nervous System?
Acetylcholine and norepinephrine.
p.16
Cholinergic and Adrenergic Receptors
What are the two main classes of adrenergic receptors?
α (alpha) and β (beta) receptors.
p.1
Neurotransmission and Function of ANS
What role do neurotransmitters play in the autonomic nervous system?
They facilitate communication between neurons and target organs.
p.16
Cholinergic and Adrenergic Receptors
What effect do β2 receptors have on smooth muscle?
They cause relaxation in bronchioles, bladder wall, and gastrointestinal tract.
p.17
Function of the Adrenal Medulla
What is the adrenal medulla considered to be?
A large sympathetic ganglion.
p.7
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems
What type of responses does the Parasympathetic Nervous System usually cause?
Specific localized responses.
p.10
Autonomic Tone and Its Importance
How does changing autonomic tone affect blood vessels?
It can change vessel diameter, affecting arteriole resistance and blood flow.
p.11
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
What analogy is used to describe the functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions?
The sympathetic division as the accelerator and the parasympathetic division as the brake.
p.15
Cholinergic and Adrenergic Receptors
What are the two main types of cholinergic receptors?
Nicotinic and Muscarinic.
p.8
Autonomic Tone and Its Importance
What is autonomic tone?
The basal (resting) level of activity of autonomic nerves.
p.13
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
What are some autonomic functions?
Control of respiration, cardiac regulation, vasomotor activity, and reflex actions like coughing and sneezing.
p.16
Cholinergic and Adrenergic Receptors
What functions do α receptors primarily cause?
Contraction of smooth muscle, including vascular smooth muscle and sphincters.
p.5
General Structure of the Nervous System
What are autonomic efferent pathways responsible for?
They transmit signals from the central nervous system to the body's organs and glands.
p.5
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems
What are the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
p.17
Function of the Adrenal Medulla
What do chromaffin cells contain?
Granules or vesicles containing adrenaline or noradrenaline.
p.14
General Structure of the Nervous System
How many neurons are involved in the Autonomic Nervous System pathway?
Two neurons: preganglionic and postganglionic.
p.2
General Structure of the Nervous System
What does the sensory division of the nervous system do?
Carries impulses toward the CNS from the body's sensory receptors.
p.18
Stress Response and Fight or Flight Mechanism
What is the primary function of the sympathetic nervous system during stress?
To elicit a 'fight or flight' response.
p.8
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems
What happens to the heart rate if the vagus nerve is cut?
The heart would beat at its own intrinsic rate of 100 beats per minute.
p.12
Higher CNS Centers Controlling Autonomic Responses
What type of responses are returned directly back to visceral organs?
Subconscious reflex responses.
p.16
Cholinergic and Adrenergic Receptors
What do adrenergic receptors recognize and bind to?
Catecholamines, norepinephrine, and epinephrine.
p.8
Autonomic Tone and Its Importance
What is the level of spontaneous activity in autonomic motor neurons?
They have a resting level of spontaneous activity even without stimuli.
p.3
Higher CNS Centers Controlling Autonomic Responses
What centers control the autonomic nervous system?
Centers located in the spinal cord, brain stem, hypothalamus, limbic system, and frontal lobes.
p.11
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
How do the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS typically function?
They function in opposition to each other.
p.11
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
What type of actions does the parasympathetic division of the ANS support?
Actions that do not require immediate reaction.
p.8
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems
What does sympathetic tone do to blood vessels?
Keeps most blood vessels partially constricted, maintaining blood pressure.
p.8
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems
What is the typical resting heart rate maintained by parasympathetic tone?
70 - 80 beats per minute.
p.16
Cholinergic and Adrenergic Receptors
What metabolic functions are β1 receptors involved in?
Gluconeogenesis, lipolysis, renin secretion, and heart functions.
p.1
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
What are the potential effects of autonomic imbalance?
Dysregulation of heart rate, blood pressure, and digestive functions.
p.17
Function of the Adrenal Medulla
What type of neurons synapse with chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla?
Preganglionic sympathetic cholinergic neurons.
p.14
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
What is the primary function of the Autonomic Nervous System?
To regulate involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate and digestion.
p.10
Autonomic Tone and Its Importance
What happens to vessel diameter when there is a decrease in autonomic tone of smooth muscle?
Vessel diameter increases.
p.9
Dual Innervation of Organs
What is dual innervation in the context of autonomic function?
Most organs have both sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation.
p.9
Dual Innervation of Organs
How do sympathetic and parasympathetic innervations operate?
They operate reciprocally or synergistically to produce coordinated responses.
p.15
Cholinergic and Adrenergic Receptors
Where are nicotinic receptors found?
In autonomic ganglia at the synapses between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons.
p.5
General Structure of the Nervous System
Where do preganglionic neurons originate?
In the central nervous system (CNS).
p.14
General Structure of the Nervous System
What is the primary function of the Somatic Nervous System?
To control voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.
p.2
General Structure of the Nervous System
What do somatic sensory fibers transmit?
Impulses from the joints, skeletal muscles, and skin.
p.6
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
What are the two main types of autonomic efferent pathways?
Parasympathetic and Sympathetic.
p.8
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
How does parasympathetic tone affect the sinus node?
It reduces the spontaneous discharge rate of the sinus node.
p.8
Autonomic Tone and Its Importance
What allows for better control of autonomic nerve activity?
The basal tone allows for an increase or decrease in activity.
p.3
Dual Innervation of Organs
Where do the axons of postganglionic neurons synapse?
On visceral effector organs such as the heart, bronchioles, and gastrointestinal tract.
p.17
Function of the Adrenal Medulla
What functions are stimulated by the adrenal medulla?
Cardiovascular function and metabolic rate.
p.10
Autonomic Tone and Its Importance
What is the significance of autonomic tone in the ANS?
It allows for better control by enabling autonomic nerves to decrease or increase their activity.
p.18
Stress Response and Fight or Flight Mechanism
What physiological changes occur during a mass sympathetic discharge?
Increased arterial pressure, heart rate, blood flow to muscles, blood glucose, metabolic rate, muscle strength, mental activity, and blood coagulation.
p.6
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems
What is the primary function of the sympathetic pathway?
To prepare the body for 'fight or flight' responses.
p.13
Higher CNS Centers Controlling Autonomic Responses
What role does the hypothalamus play in the autonomic nervous system?
Acts as an integrator for autonomic functions, receiving input from the limbic system.
p.1
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
What can cause autonomic imbalance?
Stress, injury, or disease affecting the autonomic nervous system.
p.5
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems
How do sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways differ in terms of ganglia location?
Sympathetic ganglia are located near the spinal cord, while parasympathetic ganglia are located near or within target organs.
p.2
General Structure of the Nervous System
What do visceral sensory fibers transmit?
Impulses from the visceral organs of the ventral body cavity.
p.13
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
What regulates the autonomic nervous system?
Integrated reflexes through the brainstem to the spinal cord and organs.
p.9
Dual Innervation of Organs
Where is the cooperation of the autonomic nervous system best observed?
In the control of the external genitalia.
p.13
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
What basic functions does the medulla oblongata regulate?
Respiration and connections between higher brain levels and the spinal cord.
p.13
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems
What are the two systems involved in cardiac regulation?
Sympathetic system and parasympathetic system.
p.3
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
What does the autonomic nervous system primarily control?
Functions of visceral organs.
p.14
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems
What are the two main divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System?
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic.
p.11
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
What type of actions does the sympathetic division of the ANS typically support?
Actions requiring quick responses.
p.1
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
What is autonomic imbalance?
A disruption in the normal functioning of the autonomic nervous system.
p.18
Examples of Autonomic Reflexes
What do gastrointestinal reflexes regulate?
Functions related to digestion.
p.5
General Structure of the Nervous System
What is the role of postganglionic neurons in autonomic pathways?
They transmit signals from ganglia to target organs.
p.17
Function of the Adrenal Medulla
What role does the adrenal medulla play in the body?
Involved in stress response and helps the body deal with stress.
p.18
Stress Response and Fight or Flight Mechanism
What does the body prepare for during a fight or flight response?
Vigorous activity to deal with a life-threatening situation.
p.18
Examples of Autonomic Reflexes
What is the baroreceptor reflex responsible for?
Control of blood pressure.
p.12
Higher CNS Centers Controlling Autonomic Responses
Where is sensory information from visceral organs transmitted?
To homeostatic control centers, particularly in the hypothalamus and brainstem.
p.9
Dual Innervation of Organs
What role do sympathetic fibers play in male reproductive function?
They cause ejaculation of semen.
p.9
Dual Innervation of Organs
What role do sympathetic fibers play in female reproductive function?
They cause reflex peristalsis.
p.15
Cholinergic and Adrenergic Receptors
What actions are associated with M3 muscarinic receptors?
Bronchoconstriction, bladder contraction, and miosis.
p.4
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems
What is the outflow region for the Sympathetic Nervous System?
Thoraco-lumbar outflow (T1 – L2).
p.6
Parasympathetic Nervous System
What is the primary function of the parasympathetic pathway?
To promote rest and digest activities.
p.12
Higher CNS Centers Controlling Autonomic Responses
What centers mediate ANS activity?
Centers located in the spinal cord, brain stem, hypothalamus, limbic system, and frontal lobes.
p.8
Autonomic Tone and Its Importance
What effect does loss of autonomic tone have on blood pressure?
Blood pressure could rapidly drop.
p.15
Cholinergic and Adrenergic Receptors
What types of neurons stimulate muscarinic receptors?
Postganglionic cholinergic neurons of the parasympathetic nervous system and some postganglionic sympathetic nerves.
p.15
Cholinergic and Adrenergic Receptors
What is the action of M1 muscarinic receptors?
Activating the gastrointestinal tract and salivation.
p.5
General Structure of the Nervous System
What type of neurons are involved in autonomic efferent pathways?
Preganglionic and postganglionic neurons.
p.16
Cholinergic and Adrenergic Receptors
What is the effect of epinephrine on α and β adrenoreceptors?
Causes vasoconstriction with α receptors and vasodilation with β receptors.
p.3
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
What functions does the ANS help regulate?
Arterial pressure, bladder emptying, sweating, body temperature, cardiovascular and respiratory systems, gastrointestinal tract, exocrine and some endocrine glands.
p.3
Stress Response and Fight or Flight Mechanism
How quickly can the ANS change visceral function, such as heart rate?
It can increase heart rate by twofold in 3-5 seconds.
p.17
Function of the Adrenal Medulla
What is pheochromocytoma?
A tumor that arises from chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla, causing excessive secretion of catecholamines.
p.9
Dual Innervation of Organs
What effect do parasympathetic fibers have on the external genitalia?
They cause vasodilation and are responsible for erection of the penis and clitoris.
p.15
Cholinergic and Adrenergic Receptors
What is the role of M4 and M5 muscarinic receptors?
They are involved in decreased locomotion in the CNS.
p.14
General Structure of the Nervous System
How many neurons are involved in the Somatic Nervous System pathway?
One neuron from the CNS to the effector.
