p.8
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What happens to energy as frequency increases?
High frequency (ν) corresponds to high energy (E).
p.1
Units, Accuracy, and Precision
What is the significance of significant figures in measurements?
They indicate the precision of a measurement.
p.1
Units, Accuracy, and Precision
What is dimensional analysis used for?
To convert units from one system to another.
p.16
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
What is the effect of higher positive charge on ionic radius?
Higher charge results in a smaller radius in the same row/period.
p.4
Scientific Notation and Significant Figures
What is the rule for significant figures in addition and subtraction?
The result carries the same number of decimal digits as the number with the least decimal places.
p.1
Units, Accuracy, and Precision
What are the SI base units for length, mass, and time?
Meter (m), Kilogram (kg), Second (s).
p.8
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What is wavelength (λ)?
The distance between identical points on successive waves.
p.8
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What does frequency (ν) measure?
The number of wave cycles that occur in 1 second (Hz).
p.16
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
What happens to the radius of an atom when it becomes a cation?
The radius decreases due to reduced electron-electron repulsions and a stronger pull from the nucleus.
p.17
Periodic Trends: Atomic Radius and Ionization Energy
What trend is observed in ionization energy (IE) as you move left to right across the periodic table?
Ionization energy increases.
p.11
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What does the angular momentum quantum number (l) describe?
The shape of the orbital.
p.2
Mole Concept and Molar Mass
What does Atomic Mass Unit (amu) express?
The mass of atoms and other similar sized objects.
p.11
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What is the relationship between the size of s orbitals?
1s < 2s < 3s (increasing size).
p.3
Scientific Notation and Significant Figures
How do you perform multiplication in scientific notation?
Add or subtract the exponents.
p.2
Properties of Matter and Classification
What does the Law of Conservation of Energy state?
Energy cannot be created nor destroyed; the total amount of energy in a system does not change.
p.4
Scientific Notation and Significant Figures
How many significant figures are in the number 5100g?
Ambiguous; it can have 2, 3, or 4 significant figures depending on context.
p.11
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What are the possible values for the angular momentum quantum number (l)?
Values range from 0 to 3.
p.2
Properties of Matter and Classification
What is the formula for density?
D = m/v (density equals mass divided by volume).
p.2
Properties of Matter and Classification
What is work in terms of energy?
Change in energy that results when force is exerted over distance.
p.7
Mole Concept and Molar Mass
How is the average atomic mass measured?
In atomic mass units (amu).
p.3
Units, Accuracy, and Precision
What is the difference between accuracy and precision?
Accuracy is how close to the actual value, while precision is consistency in measurements.
p.18
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
What types of elements typically form ionic bonds?
Ionic bonds typically form between metals and nonmetals.
p.14
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What is the Aufbau principle?
Electrons are added to the lowest energy orbitals first before moving to higher energy orbitals.
p.15
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
How are ions of d-block elements formed?
By removing electrons first from the shell with the highest value of n.
p.11
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What does the Schrödinger Equation specify?
Possible energy states of electrons.
p.4
Scientific Notation and Significant Figures
What is dimensional analysis?
A method that uses conversion factors to relate different physical dimensions, such as mL to grams.
p.11
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What is the Pauli Exclusion Principle?
An orbital can have at most two electrons with opposite spins.
p.16
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
What is the ionic radius?
The radius of a cation or anion.
p.17
Periodic Trends: Atomic Radius and Ionization Energy
Why do noble gases have very high ionization energies?
They are extremely stable with a full outer shell.
p.3
Scientific Notation and Significant Figures
What is scientific notation used for?
To write very large and very small numerical values easily.
p.17
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
What is the sign of energy change when an electron is added to an atom, and what does it indicate?
E < 0; energy is released, indicating an exothermic process.
p.6
Properties of Matter and Classification
What are intensive properties?
Properties that do not depend on the amount of matter, such as temperature and density.
p.15
Periodic Trends: Atomic Radius and Ionization Energy
Why does the 4s sublevel fill before the 3d sublevel?
Because of sublevel splitting, 4s is lower in energy than 3d.
p.6
Properties of Matter and Classification
What happens during a physical change?
The physical state changes but the chemical identity remains the same.
p.6
Model of the Atom and Isotopes
What does the Law of Definite Proportions state?
All samples of a given compound have the same proportions of their elements.
p.6
Model of the Atom and Isotopes
What does Rutherford’s Nuclear Theory state?
The nucleus contains most of the atom's mass.
p.4
Scientific Notation and Significant Figures
What is the rule for significant figures in multiplication and division?
The result contains the least amount of significant figures from the numbers involved.
p.8
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
How is the energy of electromagnetic radiation related to its frequency?
Energy is proportional to its frequency (E photon = hv = hc/λ).
p.3
Units, Accuracy, and Precision
What is the formula for force?
F = ma, where 'a' is acceleration.
p.8
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
How does the refractive index vary?
It varies with wavelength.
p.17
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
What is electron affinity?
The energy associated with the addition of one electron to an atom in the gas phase.
p.6
Properties of Matter and Classification
What are extensive properties?
Properties that depend on the amount of matter, such as mass, volume, and energy.
p.16
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
What is the trend of ionization energy as you move up a group?
Ionization energy increases going up a group.
p.6
Properties of Matter and Classification
What is a chemical property?
A property that cannot be observed without changing the identity of the substance.
p.15
Periodic Trends: Atomic Radius and Ionization Energy
What is the definition of covalent radius?
Half the distance between adjacent nuclei connected by a chemical bond.
p.14
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What is paramagnetism?
A condition where there is one or more unpaired electrons.
p.14
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What are valence electrons?
Electrons that are farther from the nucleus and involved in chemical bonding.
p.5
Properties of Matter and Classification
What is a pure substance?
Matter with a definite and constant composition and distinct properties.
p.5
Properties of Matter and Classification
What is quantitative property?
A property measured and expressed with numbers.
p.13
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What is the electron configuration of a ground state hydrogen atom?
The electron is in the 1s orbital.
p.9
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What is the threshold frequency in the context of the photoelectric effect?
The frequency below which no electrons are emitted.
p.4
Properties of Matter and Classification
Why is chemistry referred to as the central science?
Because it connects physical sciences with life sciences.
p.1
Units, Accuracy, and Precision
What is the role of prefixes in the SI system?
To denote multiples or fractions of base units.
p.7
Model of the Atom and Isotopes
What does the mass number (A) represent?
The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
p.10
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What does the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle state?
It is impossible to know both the momentum and position of a particle simultaneously.
p.17
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
What is the difference in adding an electron to an s orbital versus a p orbital with the same quantum number?
It is easier to add an electron to an s orbital than to a p orbital.
p.10
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
How is the probability of finding an electron in a certain area of space determined?
It is proportional to the square of the wave function (Ψ).
p.18
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
What is lattice energy?
The energy associated with the formation of a crystal lattice from gaseous ions.
p.18
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
What is the arrangement of ions in the solid phase of ionic compounds?
Ions are usually arranged in a crystal lattice.
p.12
Model of the Atom and Isotopes
What are the possible values of ml for D orbitals?
ml = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2; indicating 5 orientations.
p.14
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What is effective nuclear charge (Z_eff)?
The actual magnitude of positive charge experienced by an electron in an atom.
p.13
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What is the characteristic of metalloids?
They are intermediate between metals and nonmetals.
p.9
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What are the two types of interference in wave behavior?
Constructive (adding waves in phase) and Destructive (adding waves out of phase).
p.9
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What happens when the intensity of light increases in the photoelectric effect?
The number of emitted electrons increases.
p.4
Scientific Notation and Significant Figures
What defines significant figures?
Any nonzero number is significant; zeros between nonzero numbers are significant; zeros to the left of the first nonzero are not significant; zeros to the right of the last nonzero are significant if there is a decimal.
p.8
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What is amplitude in wave properties?
The vertical distance from the midline to the top of the peak or bottom of the trough.
p.4
Properties of Matter and Classification
What is matter?
Anything that has mass and occupies space.
p.2
Properties of Matter and Classification
What is the difference between mass and weight?
Mass is the amount of matter present, while weight is the gravitational pull on an object.
p.10
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What does λ represent in the context of electron transitions?
The wavelength corresponding to the photon absorbed when an electron moves from a lower to a higher energy level.
p.2
Properties of Matter and Classification
What are the types of energy?
Kinetic, Potential, and Radiant energy.
p.18
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
What is a compound?
A substance made up of two or more elements combined in a ratio held together by chemical bonds.
p.3
Units, Accuracy, and Precision
What are exact numbers?
Defined values, such as 1 dozen or 1 kg = 1000 g.
p.18
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
What is a covalent bond?
A covalent bond is the sharing of electrons between two atoms, typically formed between nonmetals.
p.18
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
How does distance affect lattice energy?
As the distance between ions increases, lattice energy decreases.
p.18
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
What happens to an ion in an ionic compound?
A metal becomes a cation and a nonmetal becomes an anion, forming a neutral compound.
p.15
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What is the electron configuration of chloride ion (Cl-)?
1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶; it gains one electron and is isoelectronic with Ar.
p.5
Properties of Matter and Classification
What is matter composed of?
Atoms that are connected to one another.
p.13
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
How can elements be characterized?
As metals, nonmetals, or metalloids.
p.13
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What are noble gases?
Group 8A elements: He to Rn.
p.13
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What occurs in multi-electron atoms regarding atomic orbitals?
The energies of the atomic orbitals in a shell are split.
p.9
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What occurs when the energy of a photon is higher than the binding energy?
The excess energy is converted to kinetic energy.
p.16
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
What occurs to the radius of an atom when it becomes an anion?
The radius increases due to increased electron-electron repulsions.
p.7
Model of the Atom and Isotopes
What is the atomic number (Z) of an atom?
The number of protons in the nucleus.
p.16
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
What is ionization energy?
The minimum energy required to remove a single electron from an atom in the gas phase.
p.17
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
How does effective nuclear charge affect electron affinity?
It increases from left to right, making it easier to add an electron.
p.7
Mole Concept and Molar Mass
What is Avogadro's number?
6.022 x 10^23, representing the number of elementary entities in one mole.
p.17
Properties of Matter and Classification
What is a common property of nonmetals?
Nonmetals vary in color and are not shiny.
p.12
Model of the Atom and Isotopes
What are the possible values of ml for P orbitals?
ml = -1, 0, 1; indicating 3 orientations.
p.14
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What does Hund's rule state?
The most stable arrangement of electrons is the one in which the number of electrons with the same spin is maximized.
p.14
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What are the exceptions to the Aufbau principle in electron configurations?
Chromium and Copper, which have configurations [Ar] 4s1 3d5 and [Ar] 4s1 3d10 respectively.
p.5
Properties of Matter and Classification
What are allotropes?
Different forms of the same element bonded differently, like Ozone (O3) and Oxygen Gas (O2).
p.9
Electromagnetic Radiation and Photons
What is a spectrum in the context of electromagnetic radiation?
It occurs when atoms or molecules absorb energy and release it as light energy.
p.16
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
In an isoelectronic pair, which has the largest radius: S or S-?
S- has the largest radius.
p.18
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
What are the characteristics of brittle materials?
Brittle materials are not malleable, poor conductors of heat and electricity, and have high electron affinities.
p.10
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What does the Schrödinger equation describe?
The behavior of quantum particles such as electrons and protons.
p.17
Properties of Matter and Classification
What characterizes metals in terms of physical properties?
Metals are shiny, malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity.
p.7
Mole Concept and Molar Mass
What is molar mass?
The mass in grams of one mole of a substance.
p.7
Model of the Atom and Isotopes
What is the relationship between mass number (A), atomic number (Z), and neutrons (N)?
A = Z + N, where N is the number of neutrons.
p.7
Model of the Atom and Isotopes
Why do most elements have two or more isotopes?
Because they can have varying numbers of neutrons.
p.12
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
How do you determine the number of nodes in an orbital?
Using the formula n - 1, where n is the principal quantum number.
p.5
Properties of Matter and Classification
How does a liquid behave?
Volume remains the same, but shape changes.
p.5
Properties of Matter and Classification
What are isomers?
Compounds with the same chemical formula but different structures.
p.13
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What does electron configuration describe?
How electrons are distributed in various atomic orbitals.
p.9
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What happens in the photoelectric effect?
Light hits certain metals and emits electrons.
p.9
Electromagnetic Radiation and Photons
What results in a line spectrum?
Emissions at different wavelengths.
p.16
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
What is an isoelectronic series?
Two or more species with identical electron configurations but different nuclear charges.
p.6
Properties of Matter and Classification
What type of observation does not require measurement?
Observation based → description.
p.3
Scientific Notation and Significant Figures
What are significant figures?
Meaningful digits in a reported figure.
p.18
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
What defines an ionic bond?
The transfer of electrons from one atom to another and the electrostatic interaction between oppositely charged ions.
p.7
Mole Concept and Molar Mass
What is the definition of a mole?
The amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.
p.6
Properties of Matter and Classification
What happens during a chemical change?
The chemical identity changes.
p.6
Model of the Atom and Isotopes
What does the Law of Conservation of Mass state?
Matter is neither created nor destroyed.
p.14
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
How does Z_eff change across a period?
Z_eff increases from left to right because core electrons remain the same while Z increases.
p.5
Properties of Matter and Classification
What is a mixture?
A physical combination of two or more substances.
p.5
Properties of Matter and Classification
What is qualitative property?
A property described using words, not numbers.
p.13
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What happens to a hydrogen atom in a higher energy level?
It is considered excited.
p.9
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
How did Einstein explain light in relation to the photoelectric effect?
As a beam of light being a stream of energy called photons.
p.17
Periodic Trends: Atomic Radius and Ionization Energy
What happens to ionization energy after removing an electron from an unstable and unfilled valence shell?
Ionization energies increase because the atom does not want to lose its core electrons.
p.10
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What is the relationship between particles and wavelength according to wave nature of matter?
All particles have a wavelength that is inversely proportional to their momentum.
p.16
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
How does ionization energy change down a group?
Ionization energy decreases going down a group.
p.6
Properties of Matter and Classification
What is a physical property?
A property that can be observed and measured without changing the identity of the substance.
p.15
Periodic Trends: Atomic Radius and Ionization Energy
What is the definition of metallic radius?
Half the distance between the nuclei of two adjacent metal atoms.
p.15
Periodic Trends: Atomic Radius and Ionization Energy
How does atomic radius change in the periodic table?
Increases top to bottom and decreases left to right.
p.15
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What is the electron configuration of sodium ion (Na+)?
1s² 2s² 2p⁶; it loses one electron and is isoelectronic with Ne.
p.15
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What is the electron configuration of chromium (Cr) in its +3 oxidation state?
[Ar] 3d³; it is paramagnetic.
p.14
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
How do transition metals differ from s-block elements?
Transition metals and inner transition metals exhibit trends that differ from s-block elements.
p.5
Properties of Matter and Classification
What is a heterogeneous mixture?
A mixture that can be separated, like a salad.
p.9
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What is blackbody radiation?
When a solid is heated and emits electromagnetic radiation.
p.9
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What happens if the energy of a photon is less than the binding energy?
The photon is unable to dislodge the electron.
p.10
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What does the wave function (Ψ) represent?
It describes the wave behavior of quantum particles.
p.12
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What does Ψ² represent in quantum mechanics?
The probability of finding an electron at a certain distance.
p.7
Mole Concept and Molar Mass
How do you convert mass to moles?
Using the molar mass as a conversion factor.
p.7
Model of the Atom and Isotopes
What does it mean for an atom to be neutral?
It has an equal number of protons and electrons.
p.6
Model of the Atom and Isotopes
What does the Law of Multiple Proportions state?
The ratio of the two mass ratios can be expressed as small whole numbers.
p.14
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
Which elements can be represented using a noble gas core?
All elements except hydrogen and helium.
p.14
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What is the difference in penetration between 2s and 2p orbitals?
The 2s orbital penetrates more deeply into the 1s orbital than the 2p orbital.
p.5
Properties of Matter and Classification
What is a homogeneous mixture?
A mixture with a uniform composition, like vodka.
p.13
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What is the Pauli exclusion principle?
No two electrons can have the same four quantum numbers in one atom.
p.9
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
What is the binding energy equation related to photons and the photoelectric effect?
W = hv, where v is the speed.
p.12
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What did Mendeleev study in relation to the periodic table?
Gallium (Ga) and Germanium (Ge).
p.5
Properties of Matter and Classification
How does a solid behave?
It retains shape and volume.
p.13
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What are the properties of metals?
Good conductors, malleable, and ductile.
p.9
Electromagnetic Radiation and Photons
What does 'white light' contain?
Photons that have a continuous spectrum of wavelengths.
p.12
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What are periods in the context of the periodic table?
Rows in the periodic table.
p.5
Properties of Matter and Classification
How does a gas behave?
It takes the shape and volume of its container.
p.13
Periodic Table and Electron Configurations
What are nonmetals known for?
Poor conductors and gaining electrons in reactions.
p.9
Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality
How does increasing frequency affect the speed of emitted electrons in the photoelectric effect?
The speed of electrons increases.
p.9
Electromagnetic Radiation and Photons
What is the Rydberg Equation used for?
To describe the wavelengths of light emitted by hydrogen.
