p.13
Consciousness and Subliminal Perception
What are the things that become part of our conscious experiences?
Those things that we attend to.
p.48
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What does automatic processing in reading free up capacity for?
Other necessary component skills, such as pronunciation and comprehension of text.
p.55
Spatial Orientation and Cueing
What is cueing in the Posner task?
The drawing of attention to a location due to the appearance of a stimulus.
p.48
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What happens after sufficient practice in reading?
The features can be automatically combined to form a letter.
p.50
Pop-Out Effect in Visual Attention
Give an example of the pop-out effect.
A red circle among blue circles will pop out and be automatically seen.
p.50
Pop-Out Effect in Visual Attention
What type of objects does the pop-out effect typically involve?
Mostly similar looking objects with one differing object.
p.15
Selective and Divided Attention
What does perceptual enhancement refer to?
Concentration or increasing the gain of a stimulus in the environment.
p.14
Aspects of Attention in Research
What is action selection in relation to attention?
Choosing which actions to take based on focused attention.
p.40
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
Does automatic processing interfere with other mental activities?
No, it consumes few or no conscious resources.
p.47
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
How does incidental learning compare to intentional learning?
Incidental learning is as effective as intentional learning, although intentional learning is often considered better.
p.12
Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Attention
What anatomical structures support attention and cognition?
The brain and central nervous system (CNS).
p.19
Selective and Divided Attention
What is selective attention?
The process by which a person can selectively pick out a message from a mixture of messages occurring simultaneously.
p.12
Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Attention
What field studies the cognitive neuroscience of attention?
Cognitive Neuroscience of Attention.
p.14
Aspects of Attention in Research
What does perceptual enhancement in attention refer to?
The ability to improve perception of certain stimuli.
p.37
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
What was the main focus of the laboratory experiment by David Strayer and William Johnston (2001)?
The effects of cell phones on simulated driving tasks.
p.39
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
What are the two factors Lavie considers for ignoring distracting stimuli?
Processing capacity and perceptual load.
p.42
Consciousness and Subliminal Perception
What is necessary for a free flow of information from memory?
There must be a connection to the person's control of actions.
p.42
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
How do actions that consume few conscious resources affect mental activities?
They do not interfere with other mental activities.
p.55
Spatial Orientation and Cueing
What phenomenon is observed in the Posner task?
We are quicker to detect objects at places that have been cued before.
p.8
Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Attention
What role does control play in attention?
It involves the ability to direct attention intentionally.
p.5
Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Attention
Which brain network is involved in covert attention?
The dorsal attention network, including areas like the parietal cortex and frontal eye fields.
p.16
Consciousness and Subliminal Perception
What is subliminal perception?
Perception that occurs without conscious awareness.
p.24
Selective and Divided Attention
What were the two conditions for recalling the digits?
a) Recall by ear of presentation; b) Recall in the sequence of presentation.
p.18
Consciousness and Subliminal Perception
What happens to neglected information in subliminal perception?
It can be retained despite lack of awareness.
p.32
Consciousness and Subliminal Perception
What does 'pertinence' refer to in the context of the Deutsch - Norman model?
Expectation established by prior processing with the channel.
p.27
Models of Selective Attention
What can lower the thresholds of certain words in the 'dictionary'?
Expectations can momentarily lower the thresholds for certain words, such as one's own name or danger signals.
p.2
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What is automatic processing?
The unconscious and effortless processing of information, often occurring without intentional control.
p.13
Consciousness and Subliminal Perception
What role does attention play in consciousness?
Attention brings events into consciousness.
p.19
Selective and Divided Attention
What does shadowing refer to in the context of attention?
Listening to two different messages but being able to follow only one and ignore the others.
p.49
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
How do frequently occurring words affect our perception?
They tend to be perceived as units rather than individual letters, leading to less focus on individual letters.
p.49
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What is the example sentence used in the test?
FINISHED FILES ARE THE RESULT OF YEARS OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY COMBINED WITH THE EXPERIENCE OF MANY YEARS.
p.41
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What phenomenon occurs during the Stroop Test?
The Stroop effect, where participants experience conflict between naming colors and reading words.
p.5
Covert vs. Overt Attention
Can covert attention be voluntary or reflexive?
Yes, it can be driven by goals (voluntary) or by external stimuli (reflexive).
What might cause a driver to stop a conversation or turn off the radio?
Increased traffic, construction signs, or rutted roads.
p.2
Aspects of Attention in Research
What are the main functions of attention?
To focus on specific stimuli, filter out distractions, and allocate cognitive resources.
p.18
Consciousness and Subliminal Perception
What is the priming effect?
The display of a word facilitates the recognition of an associate to that word without conscious awareness.
p.24
Selective and Divided Attention
What does the difference in recall rates suggest?
It suggests that attention was switched between sources more often in the second condition.
p.34
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
How can divided attention be achieved?
With practice, through automatic processing.
p.19
Selective and Divided Attention
What is the cocktail party effect?
The process of tracking one conversation in the face of distractions from other conversations.
p.49
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What do Laberge & Samuels (1974) suggest about word recognition?
Words require less capacity to recognize if they are seen as a unit rather than as individual letters.
p.9
Selective and Divided Attention
Why do we select to attend to certain cues?
Due to limited channel capacity.
p.39
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
How do processing capacity and perceptual load affect attention?
They determine how well people can ignore distractions while focusing on a task.
p.8
Selective and Divided Attention
What does selectiveness refer to in attention?
The ability to focus on specific stimuli while ignoring others.
p.20
Models of Selective Attention
What does the bottleneck theory explain?
How people select information when a processing stage becomes overloaded.
p.56
Spatial Orientation and Cueing
What is cueing in the context of attention?
Cueing refers to the use of signals to direct attention to specific locations or stimuli.
p.18
Consciousness and Subliminal Perception
What is subliminal perception?
Perception without awareness.
p.20
Models of Selective Attention
What is the main idea of the Attenuation Model?
It suggests that some information is weakened but not completely filtered out.
p.17
Aspects of Attention in Research
What role does attention play in consciousness?
It acts as a gatekeeper for consciousness.
p.16
Consciousness and Subliminal Perception
How does subliminal perception challenge traditional views of consciousness?
It suggests that information can be processed without conscious awareness.
p.38
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
What was the outcome of attempts to revive the two boys?
Attempts to revive them failed.
p.11
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What is a characteristic of automatic processing?
It requires little conscious attention.
p.40
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What is automatic processing?
A type of processing that does not require attention or deliberate effort.
What happens to divided attention when tasks become harder?
It becomes more difficult.
p.42
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
Can actions that consume few conscious resources be performed without thought?
Yes, they can be done without giving a thought or effort.
p.47
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What is the difference between automatic and effortful learning?
Automatic learning requires little capacity, while effortful learning can lead to interference when capacity is exceeded.
p.29
Selective and Divided Attention
What was the example message given to participants in the left ear?
“Knowledge of ON THE HILL”.
p.37
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
What conclusion was drawn about the impact of talking on the phone while driving?
It uses mental resources that would otherwise be used for driving.
p.54
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What is the purpose of the Stroop test?
To measure the interference of automatic processes on cognitive tasks.
p.8
Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Attention
How is cognitive neuroscience related to attention?
It studies the neural mechanisms underlying attention processes.
p.8
Consciousness and Subliminal Perception
What is the relationship between consciousness and attention?
Consciousness allows for awareness of attended stimuli.
p.2
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
What are distractions in the context of attention?
External or internal stimuli that divert focus from the primary task.
p.50
Pop-Out Effect in Visual Attention
How does the pop-out effect influence visual search?
A unique stimulus can be located much faster than similar stimuli.
p.5
Covert vs. Overt Attention
What is covert attention?
The mental process of selectively attending to a stimulus without moving the eyes or body towards it.
p.29
Selective and Divided Attention
What were participants asked to do in Experiment A?
Attend to a message in one ear while the linguistic meaning shifted between ears.
p.30
Selective and Divided Attention
What was revealed about the 'unattended' voice in the experiment?
It was not cut off from the participants’ knowledge of the second language.
p.15
Models of Selective Attention
What is the purpose of binding in perception?
To create the perception of a coherent object.
Why is divided attention particularly important in driving?
Due to the importance of driving in society and the risks of distractions.
p.47
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What is the effect of instructions and practice on learning?
Both can improve performance, and no significant effects are noted when tasks are already carried out efficiently.
p.6
Covert vs. Overt Attention
How can overt attention be classified?
It can be voluntary or reflexive, depending on conscious control or automatic response to stimuli.
p.1
Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Attention
What are neurocognitive mechanisms of attention?
The brain processes and structures that enable attention to function.
p.6
Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Attention
What is the role of the dorsal pathway in overt attention?
It coordinates eye movements and spatial attention.
p.1
Spatial Orientation and Cueing
What role does spatial orientation play in attention?
It helps in directing attention to specific locations in the environment.
p.42
Consciousness and Subliminal Perception
What does it mean for something to be concealed from consciousness?
It does not give rise to conscious awareness.
p.49
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What task is suggested in the text regarding the example sentence?
Count the f's in the sentence.
p.21
Models of Selective Attention
What happens after a signal is attended to in Broadbent's model?
It passes through a selective filter into a limited-capacity channel.
p.15
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
What does sustaining behavior involve?
Maintaining an action in the presence of potential distractions.
p.5
Covert vs. Overt Attention
What is an example of covert attention in action?
Reading a book while being aware of background noises without looking away from the text.
p.40
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
Does automatic processing give rise to conscious awareness?
No, it is concealed from consciousness.
p.38
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
What tragic event occurred on 14 July 2010 in Pella, Iowa?
Two boys were discovered drowned at a local pool.
p.27
Models of Selective Attention
What is a participant's 'dictionary' in the Attenuation Model?
It is the store of words where some have lower thresholds for attention.
p.54
Selective and Divided Attention
What cognitive processes are being tested in the Stroop test?
Selective attention and cognitive control.
p.48
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What is the initial component of the reading skill?
The ability to identify the features of a letter.
p.39
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
What does processing capacity refer to?
The amount of information people can handle, setting a limit on their ability to process incoming information.
p.36
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
What are distractions?
Things that direct our attention away from something we are doing.
p.30
Selective and Divided Attention
What did participants notice as the offset interval was reduced?
The two messages were of the same meaning.
What is an example of divided attention in a driving scenario?
Talking while driving on a familiar road with light traffic.
p.41
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
Why do participants struggle with the Stroop Test?
Because reading is a more powerful automatic process than color naming.
p.16
Consciousness and Subliminal Perception
What is one major controversial issue related to consciousness?
The nature and definition of consciousness itself.
p.8
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What is automatic processing?
Processing that occurs without conscious effort or control.
p.32
Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Attention
What is the first step in determining the meaning of a sensory signal in the Deutsch - Norman model?
Activation of corresponding representation in long-term memory.
p.1
Covert vs. Overt Attention
What is the difference between covert and overt attention?
Covert attention refers to focusing without moving the eyes, while overt attention involves direct eye movement towards the object of focus.
p.17
Aspects of Attention in Research
How does attention affect information processing?
It filters information before it reaches awareness.
p.1
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
How does distraction affect attention?
Distractions can lead to inattentional blindness, where important stimuli are overlooked.
p.27
Models of Selective Attention
How does attention function according to the Attenuation Model?
Attention serves as an attenuator, acting as an adjustment switch.
p.34
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
Why do people sometimes doubt if they locked the door?
Because locking the door has become an automatic response.
p.48
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What does the ability to acquire complex skills like reading depend on?
The capability of automatic processing.
p.50
Pop-Out Effect in Visual Attention
What is the pop-out effect?
A phenomenon where a unique visual stimulus stands out noticeably among similar objects.
p.55
Spatial Orientation and Cueing
What is spatial orientation in the context of attention?
It occurs when attention is drawn to a specific location.
p.15
Selective and Divided Attention
What is focusing in the context of attention?
Limiting the number of items based on some perceptual characteristics for further processing.
p.14
Aspects of Attention in Research
What does sustaining behavior mean in the context of attention?
Maintaining focus over time.
p.9
Models of Selective Attention
What concept explains the limitation in processing multiple cues?
The concept of bottleneck.
p.36
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
What is mind wandering?
Thoughts coming from within that divert attention, often referred to as daydreaming.
p.24
Selective and Divided Attention
What digits were presented to the left and right ears in the Dichotic Listening Task?
Left Ear: 6, 4, 2; Right Ear: 9, 7, 3.
What recent phenomenon has prompted research into divided attention while driving?
People talking on cell phones and texting.
p.20
Models of Selective Attention
Who developed the Memory Selection Model?
Deutsch and Norman in 1968.
p.47
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
How do emotional states like depression or high arousal affect performance?
High arousal can decrease performance, while emotional states generally have no effects.
p.2
Selective and Divided Attention
What is divided attention?
The ability to process multiple sources of information simultaneously.
p.6
Covert vs. Overt Attention
What is another example of overt attention?
Turning the head to look at a person who just entered a room.
p.3
Selective and Divided Attention
What does the phrase 'Please pay attention' imply?
It implies that one has to choose to focus on something.
p.39
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
What is perceptual load related to?
The difficulty of a task.
p.7
Aspects of Attention in Research
What is attention in the context of mental processes?
The concentration of mental effort on sensory or mental events.
p.37
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
What task were participants required to perform in the driving simulation?
Apply the brakes as quickly as possible in response to a red light.
p.55
Spatial Orientation and Cueing
What is an example of a cue in the Posner task?
A flash at a location that prompts an eye movement (saccade) to that location.
p.38
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
What does Inattentional Blindness illustrate?
How we can miss things even if they are clearly visible.
p.32
Models of Selective Attention
What happens to words in both attended and unattended conversations according to the model?
They are recognized but quickly forgotten unless they are important.
p.1
Selective and Divided Attention
What are the two main types of attention discussed in attention research?
Selective attention and divided attention.
p.16
Consciousness and Subliminal Perception
Why is subliminal perception considered controversial?
Debates exist over its effectiveness and ethical implications in advertising.
p.56
Spatial Orientation and Cueing
What is the difference between valid and invalid cues?
Valid cues correctly indicate where a stimulus will appear, while invalid cues mislead the participant.
p.1
Pop-Out Effect in Visual Attention
What is the pop-out effect in visual attention?
A phenomenon where certain stimuli stand out and capture attention automatically.
p.34
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What is automatic processing?
Performing tasks without paying attention due to years of practice.
p.12
Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Attention
What does the neurocognitive basis of attention suggest?
That the attention system is separate from other brain systems, such as data processing systems.
p.3
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
What does the phrase 'Sorry, I didn’t notice' indicate?
It indicates a lack of awareness or attention to visual stimuli.
p.8
Aspects of Attention in Research
What is processing capacity in the context of attention?
The amount of information that can be processed at one time.
p.7
Selective and Divided Attention
What does external attention refer to?
Attending to objects in the environment across different sensory modalities and spatial locations.
p.32
Models of Selective Attention
What is the Deutsch - Norman Memory Selection Model often referred to as?
The late-selection model.
p.24
Selective and Divided Attention
What is the Dichotic Listening Task?
A task where 3 digits are presented in one ear and another 3 digits in the other ear simultaneously.
p.41
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What does the Stroop Test illustrate about automatic processes?
Automatic processes can hinder our ability to adapt our thought processes to the task at hand.
p.36
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
Give an example of mind wandering.
A boy in the library thinking about what he will do later instead of solving math problems.
p.29
Selective and Divided Attention
What does the result of Experiment A suggest about attention?
We tend to attend to the meaning rather than to the message from only one ear.
p.56
Spatial Orientation and Cueing
What is the purpose of cueing experiments in psychology?
To study how attention is allocated and how it influences perception and reaction times.
p.10
Selective and Divided Attention
What is an example of a situation where attention control is exercised?
During a football match or while reading a technical report.
p.34
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What is an example of automatic processing in daily life?
Locking the door without consciously thinking about it.
p.31
Selective and Divided Attention
What does the concept of different activation thresholds in stimuli imply?
It explains how we can hear without actively attending to the stimuli.
p.3
Selective and Divided Attention
What does the statement 'You’re not listening to me!' refer to?
It refers to the distinction between hearing and actively listening.
p.21
Models of Selective Attention
What does Broadbent's Filter Model (1958) relate to?
The single-channel theory.
p.41
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What is the Stroop Test?
A test involving words printed in different colors where participants name the color instead of reading the word.
p.42
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
Give an example of an action that consumes few conscious resources.
Reading words or tying a knot in shoelaces.
p.56
Spatial Orientation and Cueing
How does cueing affect reaction times in experiments?
Cueing can significantly reduce reaction times by directing attention to the expected location of a stimulus.
p.18
Consciousness and Subliminal Perception
How can stimuli affect your mind without your awareness?
Stimuli can be strong enough to influence thoughts, such as in campaign advertisements.
p.47
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
What happens to performance when task interference occurs?
Interference occurs when the amount of available capacity is exceeded.
p.10
Selective and Divided Attention
How does the attention mechanism function?
It focuses on certain preferred stimuli by monitoring or toning down excluded cues.
p.47
Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Attention
What are the developmental trends in learning performance?
There is decreased performance in young children and the elderly, while skills acquired early do not decline in old age.
p.2
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
What is inattentional blindness?
The failure to notice a fully visible but unexpected object because attention was engaged on another task.
p.31
Selective and Divided Attention
What is the role of the perceptual filter in information processing?
It evaluates the signal based on gross physical characteristics like volume and loudness.
p.30
Selective and Divided Attention
What was the main task participants performed in Experiment B?
Shadowed a passage from Orwell’s England, Your England.
p.14
Aspects of Attention in Research
What is the function of binding in attention?
Integrating different features of objects into a coherent perception.
p.21
Models of Selective Attention
How are messages processed in Broadbent's model?
Through a number of parallel sensory channels.
p.40
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What are the three characteristics of an automatic process described by Posner and Snyder?
1) Occurs without intention, 2) Concealed from consciousness, 3) Consumes few (or no) conscious resources.
p.37
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
How did talking on a cell phone affect participants' performance in the driving task?
Participants missed twice as many red lights and took longer to apply the brakes.
p.6
Covert vs. Overt Attention
What does overt attention refer to?
The physical movement of sensory organs, typically the eyes, to focus on a specific stimulus or location.
p.38
Selective and Divided Attention
Why is attention considered a limited resource?
Because we can attend to some things but not to everything.
p.37
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
What is the primary issue with using a cell phone while driving, according to the study?
Driving with fewer mental resources available to focus on driving.
p.54
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What does the Stroop test typically involve?
Naming the color of words that are printed in different colors.
p.6
Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Attention
Which brain networks are engaged during overt attention?
Both the dorsal and ventral attention networks.
p.54
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
How does the Stroop effect manifest?
Participants take longer to name the color of words when the word itself is a different color.
What is divided attention?
Attending to two or more things at once.
p.31
Selective and Divided Attention
What is the initial step in the interpretation of information?
Initial screening of information through the perceptual filter.
p.9
Selective and Divided Attention
What is the reason for our inability to process all sensory cues simultaneously?
Limited processing capacity.
p.21
Models of Selective Attention
What is the basis for selection in Broadbent's model?
Distinct neural codes, such as high-pitched or low-pitched signals.
p.1
Aspects of Attention in Research
What is the primary focus of Lecture 4 on Attention?
The various aspects and mechanisms of attention.
p.40
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
Is automatic processing intentional?
No, it occurs without intention.
p.15
Selective and Divided Attention
What is action selection?
Choosing an action to be performed from among a set of possibilities.
p.10
Selective and Divided Attention
What do we have control over regarding attention?
The stimuli we attend to and the situation.
p.54
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
What phenomenon does the Stroop test illustrate?
The difficulty of overriding automatic responses.
p.10
Selective and Divided Attention
Give an example of a situation where we control our attention.
Listening to one voice in a party.
p.6
Covert vs. Overt Attention
Give an example of overt attention.
Watching a bird fly across the sky and following its movement with the eyes.
p.5
Covert vs. Overt Attention
What does covert attention allow individuals to do?
Prioritize information processing without physically shifting their gaze or body posture.
p.29
Selective and Divided Attention
What was the example message given to participants in the right ear?
“THERE IS A HOUSE understand the word”.
p.7
Consciousness and Subliminal Perception
What is internal attention?
Regulating our internal mental life.
p.9
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
What factors influence our ability to select cues?
Clearness of the stimuli from competing signals, noise, or interruptions.
p.29
Selective and Divided Attention
What did participants report hearing in Experiment A?
“There is a house on a hill”.
p.27
Models of Selective Attention
What does the Attenuation Model propose about language effects?
Contextual effects of language can cause subjects to report words from the unattended channel.
p.32
Consciousness and Subliminal Perception
What determines which memory representation enters awareness?
The highest combined activation from sensory input and pertinence.
p.20
Models of Selective Attention
What is the focus of models of selective attention?
Understanding how individuals prioritize and process information.
p.38
Distractions and Inattentional Blindness
How many lifeguards and camp counselors were observing the swimmers?
10 lifeguards and 20 camp counselors.
Can you give an example of divided attention?
Driving while having conversations, listening to music, and thinking about future plans.
p.6
Covert vs. Overt Attention
What are the characteristics of overt attention?
It involves redirecting sensory organs towards the object or location of interest, resulting in changes in visual input.
p.56
Spatial Orientation and Cueing
What types of cues are commonly used in cueing experiments?
Visual cues, such as arrows or changes in color, and auditory cues.
p.27
Models of Selective Attention
What is meant by 'shadowing' in the context of the Attenuation Model?
Shadowing refers to the act of repeating words aloud, sometimes inappropriately, from the unattended channel.
p.2
Selective and Divided Attention
What is selective attention?
The process of focusing on a particular object in the environment for a certain period while ignoring others.
p.6
Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Attention
What does the ventral pathway process in relation to overt attention?
Object recognition and identification.
p.31
Selective and Divided Attention
How does the perceptual filter affect verbal processing?
It intercedes between the signal and its verbal processing, regulating the 'volume' of the message.
