p.1
Experimental Design in Psychology
What is the dependent variable in an experimental study?
The measured outcome, such as cumulative exam scores or class engagement.
p.2
Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods
What is a Type 2 error?
When data fail to show a relationship between variables that actually exists.
p.1
Experimental Design in Psychology
What is the independent variable in an experimental study?
The manipulated factor, such as whether students use laptops or not.
p.1
Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods
What is a cohort effect?
When a group of subjects shares a common characteristic that could influence their behavior.
p.1
Cognitive Development Theories
What does the principle of simplicity suggest in theory selection?
Select the simplest explanation when multiple explanations are valid.
p.1
Research Methodologies in Psychology
What does validity refer to in research?
The accuracy of the measurement in capturing what it is supposed to measure.
p.1
Cognitive Development Theories
What is the importance of accuracy in psychological theories?
Explanations and theories must match real-world observations.
p.1
Research Methodologies in Psychology
What does reliability refer to in research?
The consistency of measurement.
p.1
Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods
What is a strength of correlational research?
It is widely applicable and can be conducted in naturalistic settings.
p.1
Research Methodologies in Psychology
What distinguishes science from pseudoscience?
The ability to be falsified and the articulation of evidence that could disprove the hypothesis.
p.2
Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods
What is a Type 1 error?
When a researcher concludes that there is a relationship between two variables but there actually isn't.
p.1
Experimental Design in Psychology
What is the purpose of experimental research in psychology?
To manipulate a particular stimulus to see if it leads to a certain response while controlling for extraneous factors.
p.1
Experimental Design in Psychology
What is the significance of random assignment in experiments?
It ensures that both groups have a mix of motivated and unmotivated individuals, enhancing the validity of the results.
p.1
Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods
What is a weakness of experimental research?
It can be artificial and not always possible to conduct.
p.2
Research Methodologies in Psychology
What does null-hypothesis significance testing assess?
The probability that the collected data would be the same if there were no relationship between variables.
p.1
Cognitive Development Theories
What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning in psychological science?
Inductive reasoning draws general conclusions from specific observations, while deductive reasoning asserts that something must cause something else after exhausting all other possibilities.
p.12
Personality Theories and Models
What do personality traits reflect?
Continuous distributions with individual differences.
p.12
Personality Theories and Models
How stable are personality traits over time?
They are consistent and somewhat stable.
p.12
Personality Theories and Models
According to Eysenck, why do introverts seek quieter environments?
They experience more sensory overload and arousal.
p.12
Personality Theories and Models
What motivates extraverts according to Jeffrey Gray?
They are motivated to seek reward and exhibit assertive behavior.
p.5
Attachment Theory and Styles
What psychological benefit do reintroducing nurses provide to babies?
They provide psychological security.
p.12
Personality Theories and Models
What motivates introverts according to Jeffrey Gray?
They are motivated to avoid punishment and have heightened awareness of threats.
p.5
Attachment Theory and Styles
At what age do studies show peak separation anxiety in children?
Around 10-15 months of age.
p.5
Attachment Theory and Styles
What are the ultimate and proximate causes of attachment?
Ultimate cause: adaptive nature of separation anxiety; Proximate cause: behaviors leading to attachment.
p.12
Personality Theories and Models
What does Mischel argue about behavior?
Behavior results from a child's unique evaluation of risks and rewards in a scenario.
p.8
Nature vs. Nurture in Development
What is a cohort effect?
The effect of a group bonded by time or a particular life experience, which may not be applicable to all people of that age.
p.12
Personality Theories and Models
What is the person-situation debate?
It questions whether behavior is a result of personality traits or the situation.
p.5
Attachment Theory and Styles
According to John Bowlby, what is attachment?
A strong affectional tie we feel for special people that leads to joy in their presence and distress in their absence.
p.8
Research Methodologies in Psychology
What is longitudinal design in research?
Participants of similar age are measured across multiple time points to compare their younger and older versions.
p.9
Impact of Aging on Cognitive and Emotional Functioning
What predicts reduced cognitive decline in older adults?
Engaging in cognitive activities.
p.5
Attachment Theory and Styles
What did Harry Harlow's experiments with monkeys demonstrate?
Monkeys preferred contact comfort from a cloth model over a wire model that provided food.
p.13
Research Methodologies in Psychology
What does the scientific mindset rely on?
Evidence and skepticism, not blindly trusting others' findings.
p.9
Impact of Aging on Cognitive and Emotional Functioning
What type of activities boosted memory performance more than social activities?
Demanding new activities.
p.8
Research Methodologies in Psychology
What is sequential design?
Participants of different ages are measured across multiple time points to observe how different groups change over time.
p.5
Attachment Theory and Styles
What are transitional objects?
Items like blankets or stuffed animals that children form an emotional bond with for comfort in the absence of caregivers.
p.13
Research Methodologies in Psychology
What is a theory in the context of the scientific method?
A proposal about how two things relate to one another.
p.9
Impact of Aging on Cognitive and Emotional Functioning
What are the three criteria of successful aging according to Rowe and Kahn (1997)?
Avoidance of disease, maintenance of high functioning, and active engagement in activities.
p.3
Piaget's Stages of Development
What is the preoperational stage in Piaget's theory?
A stage from approximately 2 to 6 years where thinking is dominated by perception and symbolic schemas.
p.5
Attachment Theory and Styles
What is relationship privation?
Meeting basic nutritional needs while being deprived of social interaction.
p.13
Research Methodologies in Psychology
What is a research question?
A question that needs to be answered to determine if a theory is valid.
p.9
Impact of Aging on Cognitive and Emotional Functioning
What can promote positive beliefs about aging?
Priming positive associations with aging.
p.8
Impact of Aging on Cognitive and Emotional Functioning
What did the sequential design using experience sampling reveal about happiness?
Positive emotion increases up to the age of 64, and emotional experience becomes more stable as people age.
p.5
Attachment Theory and Styles
What did Ainsworth's 'strange situation' tests assess?
Attachment styles by observing infant behavior in a new environment with a caregiver and a stranger.
p.3
Piaget's Stages of Development
What is the concrete operational stage?
A stage from approximately 6 to 12 years where children begin to think logically but cannot think systematically in scientific ways.
p.10
Personality Theories and Models
What role does the ego play in Freud's structural model?
It mediates between the ID and reality, driving decision-making.
p.9
Personality Theories and Models
What is the 'talking cure'?
A method developed by Freud that laid the foundation for psychotherapy.
p.6
Attachment Theory and Styles
What did the Stanford experiment investigate regarding attachment styles?
It examined whether a baby's attachment style influences their expectations in response to a responsive vs. unresponsive event.
p.10
Personality Theories and Models
How can early life experiences shape development according to Freud?
They can influence our development into adulthood.
p.6
Attachment Theory and Styles
Why is attachment style important for babies?
It provides psychological security, helping them see the world as predictable and reliable.
p.10
Personality Theories and Models
What strategies can help with delayed gratification?
Distancing, both physically and mentally.
p.4
Cognitive Development Theories
What do information processing theories examine?
The mental processes that produce thinking at any one time.
p.2
Cognitive Development Theories
What is the significance of schemas in Piaget's theory?
Schemas are mental structures that help us organize and interpret knowledge.
p.4
Nature vs. Nurture in Development
What role do children play in shaping their own development?
They have preferences, such as looking at their mother's face.
p.4
Cognitive Development Theories
What difference did Ramani and Aiegler find in children's mathematical abilities?
A difference between low-income and affluent backgrounds due to engagement in numerical activities.
p.8
Impact of Aging on Cognitive and Emotional Functioning
What is crystallized intelligence?
Skills accumulated throughout life that change with age.
p.9
Personality Theories and Models
What is personality?
An individual’s characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior.
p.13
Research Methodologies in Psychology
What are supporting data?
Data that strengthen the theory.
p.3
Piaget's Stages of Development
What is the formal operational stage?
A stage starting around age 12 where individuals can think abstractly and systematically, often requiring formal education.
p.10
Personality Theories and Models
What is the function of the superego in Freud's model?
It is concerned with morality and the ideals of right and wrong.
p.9
Personality Theories and Models
What does the conscious mind consist of?
Thoughts, emotions, and memories that you are presently aware of.
p.3
Cognitive Development Theories
What is the violation of expectation method?
A method where unexpected outcomes take longer to process than expected outcomes, indicating cognitive understanding.
p.7
Erikson's Psychosocial Development Stages
What are the eight psychosocial stages proposed by Erik Erikson?
Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority, Identity vs. Role Confusion, Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation, Integrity vs. Despair.
p.11
Personality Theories and Models
How is 'Conscientiousness' characterized?
Being careful, on time, following rules, hardworking, and efficient.
p.6
Attachment Theory and Styles
Who developed attachment theory and what was its purpose?
John Bowlby developed attachment theory to understand the distress children experience when separated from parents.
p.7
Erikson's Psychosocial Development Stages
What is the focus of the Industry vs. Inferiority stage?
The focus is on whether the child feels they measure up, occurring between ages 6-12.
p.4
Attachment Theory and Styles
What do social partners help children identify?
Who in the world is 'good' or 'bad' and who they identify with.
p.11
Personality Theories and Models
What is 'Neuroticism' associated with?
Frequently expressing negative emotions and being interpersonally sensitive.
p.11
Personality Theories and Models
What did the Minnesota study of twins reared apart find?
Twins reared apart were about as similar in personality traits as those reared together.
p.11
Personality Theories and Models
What is the relationship between genetic factors and the Big Five traits?
There is a higher correlation of Big Five traits between monozygotic twins than dizygotic twins.
p.4
Cognitive Development Theories
What challenge to Piaget's theory did Diamond find?
Infants show earlier knowledge of object permanence with shorter wait periods.
p.4
Attachment Theory and Styles
What is psychological security?
The belief that our needs will be met and the world is predictable and reliable.
p.3
Piaget's Stages of Development
What is conservation in the context of child development?
The understanding that physical properties remain the same despite physical transformations.
p.10
Personality Theories and Models
What are the three levels of awareness in Freud's topographic model?
Conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.
p.8
Impact of Aging on Cognitive and Emotional Functioning
What are some cons of aging related to cognitive function?
Declines in physical and cognitive function, including working memory, attention, and processing speed.
p.13
Experimental Design in Psychology
What is a cross-sectional design?
A study conducted at one point in time with different groups.
p.6
Attachment Theory and Styles
How do anxious resistant infants behave during separation and reunion?
They are extremely distressed when the parent leaves and still stressed upon reunion, showing conflicting behavior.
p.3
Cognitive Development Theories
What does habituation in infants indicate?
Decreased response to a stimulus with repeated exposure, showing understanding of intention as early as 6 months.
p.10
Personality Theories and Models
What is one of Freud's legacies regarding unconscious influences?
Our feelings, thoughts, and behaviors are influenced by things outside of our conscious awareness.
p.13
Research Methodologies in Psychology
What is a correlational study?
A study that measures the relationship between two variables, often represented in a scatterplot.
p.6
Attachment Theory and Styles
What was the outcome of Van den Boom's training program for parents?
Parents who were trained to be responsive helped develop secure attachment styles in their babies.
p.7
Erikson's Psychosocial Development Stages
What is the significance of early experiences in Erikson's theory?
Early experiences are crucial; success in one stage influences success in subsequent stages.
p.3
Cognitive Development Theories
What is theory of mind?
The ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others, understanding that others can have different beliefs and intents.
p.11
Personality Theories and Models
What is a key characteristic of 'Extraversion'?
Being talkative, sociable, and enjoying the company of others.
p.10
Personality Theories and Models
What did Gorden Allport suggest about personality?
Personality is easily inferrable based on exhibited characteristics.
p.2
Cognitive Development Theories
What is developmental psychology concerned with?
How potential is fulfilled throughout the psychological journey of life.
p.6
Attachment Theory and Styles
How can attachment styles in adulthood be influenced?
Attachment styles can mutually shape one another, with secure individuals more likely to attract secure partners.
p.7
Erikson's Psychosocial Development Stages
What are some critiques of Erikson's theory?
Critiques include that stages do not occur in the same sequence for everyone and that environmental factors significantly influence development.
p.7
Research Methodologies in Psychology
What is a cross-sectional design in studying change?
It involves measuring participants of different ages at one time point to compare their experiences.
p.7
Erikson's Psychosocial Development Stages
What is the main question addressed in the Identity vs. Role Confusion stage?
The question is 'Do I know who I am?' during adolescence (ages 12-20).
p.11
Personality Theories and Models
What did Walter Mischel propose about personality?
Personality can be thought of in terms of 'if...then' scenarios based on situations.
p.4
Cognitive Development Theories
What is phonemic awareness?
Awareness of component sounds within words, crucial for learning to read.
p.4
Attachment Theory and Styles
What preference do newborns have according to studies?
They prefer patterns that resemble faces.
p.5
Attachment Theory and Styles
How does institutionalization affect developmental outcomes?
It is associated with delays in motor skills, executive functioning, language, and social behavior.
p.3
Piaget's Stages of Development
What is egocentrism in child development?
The inability to see things from another person's perspective, as demonstrated in the false belief task.
p.9
Personality Theories and Models
Why is personality important?
It can predict human behaviors and build trust.
p.8
Erikson's Psychosocial Development Stages
What is socioemotional selectivity theory?
The perception of 'time left' influences motives, with younger people focusing on future gains and older adults emphasizing present-moment happiness.
p.13
Experimental Design in Psychology
What is a longitudinal design?
A study involving the same individual at different time points or ages.
p.6
Attachment Theory and Styles
What characterizes anxious avoidant (insecurely attached) infants?
They seem stressed when the parent leaves but avoid the parent upon reunion.
p.7
Attachment Theory and Styles
What do longitudinal studies show about early attachment styles?
They demonstrate prospective associations with interpersonal functioning in adulthood, indicating probabilistic, not deterministic outcomes.
p.11
Personality Theories and Models
What does the trait 'Openness' refer to?
The tendency to appreciate new ideas, values, behaviors, and feelings.
p.10
Personality Theories and Models
What is the significance of Walter Mischel's marshmallow experiment?
It studies the concept of delayed gratification and its correlation with life outcomes.
p.2
Experimental Design in Psychology
Why is it important to assess the adequacy and appropriateness of a sample?
To ensure that findings are applicable beyond a specific cultural context.
p.3
Cognitive Development Theories
What does core knowledge suggest about infants?
The idea that babies are born with innate structures of knowledge.
p.6
Attachment Theory and Styles
How does the attachment behavioral system function?
It functions like a thermostat, regulating proximity to an attachment figure.
p.7
Erikson's Psychosocial Development Stages
What does the Intimacy vs. Isolation stage address?
It addresses the question 'Can I love and be loved?' during the 20s to 40s.
p.4
Cognitive Development Theories
What did the study on babies' expectations of addition and subtraction demonstrate?
It supports the concept of core knowledge.
p.4
Nature vs. Nurture in Development
How do children's genes affect their development?
They influence how others treat them, which can affect their development.
p.2
Piaget's Stages of Development
What is the sensorimotor stage in Piaget's theory?
The developmental phase from 0-2 years where children use sensory and motor schemas.
p.2
Piaget's Stages of Development
What does Piaget's object permanence task demonstrate?
That babies do not try to retrieve a toy when it is out of sight because they do not know it exists.
p.11
Personality Theories and Models
What is the relationship between quality of attachment and academic achievement?
Quality of attachment influences delay of gratification, which in turn affects academic achievement.
p.4
Attachment Theory and Styles
What do babies prefer in terms of sound?
They prefer their mother's voice or voices speaking the same language as their parents.
p.13
Research Methodologies in Psychology
What is a hypothesis?
A specific prediction about what will happen in the context of the research design, given the theory.
p.6
Attachment Theory and Styles
What are the three key phases in infant attachment theories?
Secure base, separation, and reunion.
p.10
Personality Theories and Models
What does the ID represent in Freud's structural model?
The basic pleasure-seeking drive that maximizes pleasure and avoids pain.
p.8
Impact of Aging on Cognitive and Emotional Functioning
How can cognitive reserves be built early in life?
Through higher education, which is associated with less cognitive decline.
p.13
Research Methodologies in Psychology
What does operationalizing a variable mean?
Translating a variable into a specific, quantifiable measurement.
p.11
Personality Theories and Models
What are the five traits in the Five-Factor Model?
Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.
p.9
Personality Theories and Models
What is contained in the preconscious mind?
Knowledge or memories waiting to be brought up.
p.3
Cognitive Development Theories
What is object permanence?
The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.
p.9
Personality Theories and Models
What does the unconscious mind include?
Urges, repressions, anxiety, instincts, conflicts, hidden desires, and dreams.
p.7
Erikson's Psychosocial Development Stages
What is the psychological struggle in the Trust vs. Mistrust stage?
The question is 'Can I trust the world?' during infancy to age 2.
p.4
Cognitive Development Theories
What are the four areas of core knowledge according to Spelke?
Objects, actions, number, and space.
p.11
Personality Theories and Models
What does 'Agreeableness' involve?
Agreeing to go along with others rather than asserting one's own opinions.
p.10
Personality Theories and Models
What is the lexical hypothesis?
It suggests that individual differences are important and become part of our language for communication.
p.2
Piaget's Stages of Development
What is Piaget's theory focused on?
Whether children progress through qualitatively different stages of development.
p.2
Cognitive Development Theories
What is constructivism according to Piaget?
Knowledge is constructed through an interaction of what we already know and what we experience.
p.11
Personality Theories and Models
How did children's behavior differ in the marshmallow test based on attachment quality?
Children in the unreliable group ate the marshmallow quickly, while those in the reliable group waited four times longer.
p.4
Cognitive Development Theories
What is Vygotsky's view on thought development?
It unfolds in an active seeking manner, emphasizing the sociocultural view of development.
p.4
Attachment Theory and Styles
What is attachment?
The strong affectionate tie we feel for special people that brings joy and comfort.
