p.26
Cell Structure and Function
What structures are found only in animal cells?
Centrioles and microvilli.
p.14
Cell Membrane and Transport Mechanisms
What is the nature of the cell surface membrane?
It is described as 'partially permeable'.
p.22
Cell Structure and Function
What is the function of the cytoskeleton?
To provide support and movement of the cell.
p.7
Microscope Techniques in Cell Studies
What is a stage micrometer?
A slide with a very accurate scale in micrometres (μm), usually in 10 μm divisions.
p.11
Microscope Techniques in Cell Studies
What can be observed regarding chromosomes during mitosis?
Chromosome position and replication are visible.
p.6
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
What is the first step in solving magnification questions?
Check that units are the same.
p.14
Cell Membrane and Transport Mechanisms
Are the components of the cell surface membrane static or dynamic?
They are constantly in motion.
p.1
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
What is one of the key topics covered under 'The Microscope in Cell Studies'?
Magnification Calculations.
p.19
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What is a large permanent vacuole?
A sac in plant cells surrounded by the tonoplast, a selectively permeable membrane.
p.25
Microscope Techniques in Cell Studies
What type of electron micrograph is used to show plant cells?
TEM (Transmission Electron Microscopy) electron micrograph.
p.4
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
How can the magnification (M) of an object be calculated?
If both the size of the image (I) and the actual size of the specimen (A) are known.
p.1
Cell Structure and Function
What is the primary focus of the section titled 'Cell Structure'?
The study of cells as the basic units of living organisms.
p.21
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What is the function of the centrosome during cell division?
It organizes the spindle fibers.
p.16
Cell Structure and Function
What separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm?
The nuclear envelope, which is a double membrane.
p.23
Cell Membrane and Transport Mechanisms
What are flagella similar to?
Cilia, but made of longer microtubules.
p.15
Cell Structure and Function
What are plasmodesmata?
Narrow threads of cytoplasm surrounded by a cell membrane that connect the cytoplasm of neighboring plant cells.
p.28
ATP and Energy Transfer in Cells
What is ATP known as in all known forms of life?
The universal energy currency.
p.26
Cell Structure and Function
What additional structures do plant cells have that animal cells do not?
Cellulose cell wall, large permanent vacuoles, and chloroplasts.
p.8
Microscope Techniques in Cell Studies
What is a stage micrometer used for?
To calibrate the eyepiece graticule and measure the length of objects on a slide.
p.19
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What is the primary function of the Golgi apparatus?
Modifies proteins and packages them into vesicles or lysosomes.
p.21
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
In which types of organisms are centrioles not found?
Flowering plants and fungi.
p.16
Cell Structure and Function
What are nucleoli?
Darkly stained regions in the nucleus that are sites of ribosome production.
p.5
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
Why is it important to use the same units when doing calculations?
All measurements must be in the same units for accurate calculations.
p.31
Viruses: Structure and Characteristics
What are the main structural components of a virus?
A nucleic acid core (DNA or RNA) and a protein coat called a capsid.
p.31
Viruses: Structure and Characteristics
What is an envelope in the context of viruses?
An outer layer formed from the membrane-phospholipids of a cell they were made in.
p.17
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What are thylakoids?
Membrane-bound compartments containing chlorophyll.
p.5
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
Does magnification have units?
No, magnification does not have units.
p.18
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What are ribosomes composed of?
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins.
p.17
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What do chloroplasts contain that is involved in protein synthesis?
Small circular pieces of DNA and ribosomes.
p.18
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What is the primary function of the Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)?
Involved in the production, processing, and storage of lipids, carbohydrates, and steroids.
p.11
Microscope Techniques in Cell Studies
What are the two types of microscopes mentioned?
Light microscope and electron microscope.
p.26
Cell Structure and Function
What is the ultrastructure of an animal cell characterized by?
A densely packed cell with extensive networks of ER, RER, and ribosomes.
p.8
Microscope Techniques in Cell Studies
Why is it important to be comfortable with calibrating the eyepiece graticule?
Because calculations involving stage micrometers and eyepiece graticules are often seen in exam questions.
p.20
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What do lysosomes contain?
Hydrolytic enzymes that break down biological molecules.
p.2
Microscope Techniques in Cell Studies
Why must samples be thin for microscope viewing?
To allow light to pass through.
p.16
Cell Structure and Function
What does the nucleus of a cell contain?
Chromatin, which is the genetic material of the cell.
p.28
ATP and Energy Transfer in Cells
What do all organisms require to maintain their cells and stay alive?
A constant supply of energy.
p.1
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
What is one of the topics related to microscopy mentioned?
Eyepiece Graticules & Stage Micrometers.
p.31
Viruses: Structure and Characteristics
What is the size range of viruses compared to prokaryotic cells?
Viruses are much smaller, with diameters between 20 and 300 nm.
p.12
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
How do you calculate total magnification in microscopy?
Eyepiece lens magnification x Objective lens magnification.
p.3
Biological Drawing Conventions
What are biological drawings?
Line pictures that show specific features observed in a specimen.
p.3
Biological Drawing Conventions
What is the difference between biological drawings and plan drawings?
Biological drawings visualize cells at higher magnification, while plan drawings depict tissues at lower magnifications.
p.8
Microscope Techniques in Cell Studies
What should students practice for exam questions related to microscopy?
How to calibrate the graticule and calculate the length of an object on the slide.
p.15
Cell Structure and Function
Where is the cell wall located in relation to the cell membrane?
The cell wall is formed outside of the cell membrane.
p.6
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
How is magnification calculated?
Magnification = image size / actual size.
p.1
ATP and Energy Transfer in Cells
What is the significance of ATP in cells?
It plays a vital role in energy transfer.
p.29
Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic Cells
How do the sizes of prokaryotic cells compare to eukaryotic cells?
Prokaryotic cells are many (100s/1000s) of times smaller than eukaryotic cells.
p.23
Cell Membrane and Transport Mechanisms
What is the function of flagella?
Contract to provide cell movement, for example in sperm cells.
p.16
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What is the primary function of mitochondria?
They are the site of aerobic respiration within eukaryotic cells.
p.5
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
What is the best practice for unit measurement in calculations?
Use the smallest unit of measurement shown in the question.
p.31
Viruses: Structure and Characteristics
How do viruses reproduce?
By infecting living cells and using their protein-building machinery.
p.10
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
What types of specimens can electron microscopes observe?
Electron microscopes are useful for looking at organelles, viruses, DNA, and whole cells in more detail.
p.3
Biological Drawing Conventions
What is an important tip for producing a biological drawing?
Only draw what you see, not what you think you see.
p.27
Cell Structure and Function
How do plant cells compare to animal cells in terms of structure?
Plant cells have a larger, more regular structure.
p.24
Cell Structure and Function
What are the two types of cells mentioned in the notes?
Animal cells and plant cells.
p.23
Cell Membrane and Transport Mechanisms
What is the function of cilia?
Allows the movement of substances over the cell surface.
p.19
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
How do vacuoles in animal cells differ from those in plant cells?
Vacuoles in animal cells are not permanent and are smaller.
p.9
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
What is resolution in microscopy?
Resolution is the ability to distinguish between two separate points.
p.10
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
What is the minimum specimen size for light microscopes?
Light microscopes are used for specimens above 200 nm.
p.10
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
How do light microscopes magnify specimens?
Light microscopes shine light through the specimen, which is then passed through an objective lens and an eyepiece lens (x10).
p.3
Biological Drawing Conventions
What must be included in a biological drawing?
A title and the magnification used for observations.
p.10
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
How do electron microscopes create images?
Electron microscopes fire a beam of electrons at the specimen, which is then picked up by an electromagnetic lens.
p.10
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
Why must specimens be dead for electron microscopy?
Electron microscopy requires specimens to be dead to provide a snapshot in time of cellular structures.
p.17
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What are ribosomes composed of?
Almost equal amounts of RNA and protein.
p.24
Microscope Techniques in Cell Studies
What should you be able to do with photomicrographs and electron micrographs of animal cells?
Describe and interpret them.
p.30
Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic Cells
What is believed about the emergence of prokaryotic cells?
They are believed to have emerged as the first living organisms on Earth.
p.21
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What is the structure of a centriole?
Hollow fibers made of microtubules.
p.9
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
What is magnification in microscopy?
Magnification is how many times bigger the image of a specimen is compared to its actual size.
p.4
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
If an image of an animal cell is 30 mm and magnified by a factor of 3000, what is the actual size of the cell?
The actual size of the cell is 30 mm / 3000 = 0.01 mm.
p.29
Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic Cells
What is a key structural difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
Prokaryotes lack membrane-bound organelles.
p.16
Cell Structure and Function
What is the function of nuclear pores?
They allow mRNA and ribosomes to travel out and enzymes and signaling molecules to travel in.
p.19
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What surrounds the large permanent vacuole in plant cells?
The tonoplast, which is a selectively permeable membrane.
p.16
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What is unique about the inner membrane of mitochondria?
It has protein complexes vital for the later stages of aerobic respiration embedded within it.
p.16
ATP and Energy Transfer in Cells
What is produced during aerobic respiration in mitochondria?
ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
p.10
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
What is the minimum specimen size for electron microscopes?
Electron microscopes are used for specimens above 0.5 nm.
p.18
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What type of ribosomes are found in prokaryotes, mitochondria, and chloroplasts?
70S ribosomes (composed of 50S and 30S subunits).
p.24
Microscope Techniques in Cell Studies
What type of electron micrograph is used to show key features of animal cells?
TEM (Transmission Electron Microscopy) electron micrograph.
p.20
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What is the structure of a vesicle?
A membrane-bound sac for transport and storage.
p.23
Cell Membrane and Transport Mechanisms
What are microvilli?
Cell membrane projections that increase the surface area for absorption.
p.29
Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic Cells
How is the genetic material of prokaryotic cells organized?
It is not packaged within a membrane-bound nucleus and is usually circular.
p.15
Cell Structure and Function
What provides structural support to plant cells?
Polysaccharide cellulose.
p.2
Staining Techniques for Microscopy
What is the purpose of heating a sample over a Bunsen burner flame?
To fix the sample to the slide and allow it to take up the stain.
p.10
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
What is the resolving power of an electron microscope compared to a light microscope?
The resolving power of an electron microscope is much greater than that of a light microscope.
p.3
Biological Drawing Conventions
What is the purpose of a labelled biological drawing?
To record observations seen under the microscope or from photomicrographs.
p.7
Microscope Techniques in Cell Studies
What is the magnification factor calculated from the example given?
0.25 μm per graticule division.
p.31
Viruses: Structure and Characteristics
What type of genetic material can viruses have?
Either DNA or RNA, which can be single or double-stranded.
p.18
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What type of ribosomes are found in eukaryotic cells?
80S ribosomes (composed of 60S and 40S subunits).
p.18
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
How can the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) be distinguished from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER)?
By the presence of ribosomes on the surface of the RER.
p.25
Microscope Techniques in Cell Studies
What do electron micrographs reveal about plant cells?
They show key features of plant cells.
p.14
Cell Membrane and Transport Mechanisms
What is the primary function of the cell surface membrane?
To control the exchange of materials between the internal cell environment and the external environment.
p.22
Cell Structure and Function
How are microtubules formed?
Dimers of α and β tubulin combine to form protofilaments, and thirteen protofilaments join to make a microtubule.
p.4
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
What is magnification?
It is how many times bigger the image of a specimen is compared to its actual size.
p.2
Microscope Techniques in Cell Studies
What is the purpose of preparing specimens for a light microscope?
To observe cellular material in more detail.
p.15
Cell Membrane and Transport Mechanisms
What is the permeability of the cell wall compared to the plasma membrane?
The cell wall is freely permeable to most substances, unlike the plasma membrane.
p.4
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
What is the formula for calculating magnification?
Magnification (M) = Size of the image (I) / Actual size of the specimen (A).
p.20
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What is the primary function of lysosomes?
To break down waste materials such as worn-out organelles.
p.23
Cell Membrane and Transport Mechanisms
What is the structure of cilia?
Hair-like projections made from microtubules.
p.2
Staining Techniques for Microscopy
What is a common reason for staining microscope slides?
To distinguish transparent or difficult-to-see cell structures.
p.7
Microscope Techniques in Cell Studies
What are eyepiece graticules and stage micrometers used for?
To measure the size of objects viewed under a microscope.
p.9
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
What are the two types of lenses in a light microscope?
An eyepiece lens and a series of objective lenses.
p.1
Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic Cells
What are the two main types of cells discussed?
Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells.
p.31
Viruses: Structure and Characteristics
What are viruses classified as?
Non-cellular infectious particles.
p.29
Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic Cells
What is the size of ribosomes in prokaryotic cells compared to eukaryotic cells?
Prokaryotic ribosomes are structurally smaller (70 S) compared to eukaryotic ribosomes (80 S).
p.5
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
What are the two units used to measure cellular structures?
Micrometers (μm) and nanometers (nm).
p.1
Cell Structure and Function
What distinguishes animal cells from plant cells?
Their unique structures and functions.
p.17
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
Where are chloroplasts found in a plant?
In the green parts of a plant.
p.17
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What gives chloroplasts their green color?
The photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll.
p.1
Viruses: Structure and Characteristics
What is a characteristic of viruses as mentioned in the content?
They are distinct from both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
p.17
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
How do chloroplasts compare in size to mitochondria?
Chloroplasts are larger than mitochondria.
p.10
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
What types of specimens can light microscopes observe?
Light microscopes can observe both living and dead specimens.
p.7
Microscope Techniques in Cell Studies
How do you calculate the measurement in micrometres using graticule divisions?
Multiply the number of graticule divisions by the magnification factor.
p.17
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What connects the grana in chloroplasts?
Lamellae (thin and flat thylakoid membranes).
p.18
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
Where are ribosomes found in eukaryotic cells?
Freely in the cytoplasm or as part of the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
p.19
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What is the structure of the Golgi apparatus?
Flattened sacs of membrane similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
p.20
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
In which processes are lysosomes used extensively?
By cells of the immune system and in apoptosis (programmed cell death).
p.7
Microscope Techniques in Cell Studies
Why must microscopes be calibrated?
Because each microscope can vary slightly.
p.9
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
How do you calculate total magnification in a microscope?
By multiplying the magnification of the eyepiece lens by the magnification of the objective lens.
p.31
Viruses: Structure and Characteristics
How do viruses straddle the boundary between living and non-living?
They exhibit characteristics of both but are not cellular.
p.9
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
Why can't the phospholipid bilayer be observed under a light microscope?
Because its width (10nm) is less than the maximum resolution of a light microscope (200nm).
p.9
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
How do electron microscopes compare to light microscopes in terms of resolution?
Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution and magnification due to the smaller wavelength of electrons.
p.12
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
What can be observed using electron microscopes?
Organelles and biological molecules, such as DNA.
p.2
Microscope Techniques in Cell Studies
What determines the type of preparation and stain used for a specimen?
The type of cellular material being viewed.
p.7
Microscope Techniques in Cell Studies
How is the eyepiece graticule calibrated?
It is calibrated to the stage micrometer at each magnification.
p.7
Microscope Techniques in Cell Studies
What is the relationship between eyepiece graticule divisions and micrometres?
1 graticule division = number of micrometres ÷ number of graticule divisions.
p.3
Biological Drawing Conventions
What should the lines in a biological drawing look like?
Clear, single lines with no thick shading.
p.10
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
What is a key advantage of electron microscopes over light microscopes?
Electron microscopes have better magnification and resolution due to the higher frequency of electron waves.
p.18
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What is the function of the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)?
Processes proteins made by the ribosomes.
p.5
Microscopy: Magnification and Resolution
What should you do to convert units of measurement?
Multiply or divide depending on whether the units are increasing or decreasing.
p.3
Biological Drawing Conventions
How should label lines be drawn in a biological drawing?
They should not cross or have arrowheads and connect directly to the part being labelled.
p.18
Cellular Organelles and Their Functions
What is the primary function of ribosomes?
Site of translation (protein synthesis).
