p.99
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the four main chambers of the heart?
Right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle.
p.49
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the function of platelets in the blood?
They secrete factors that initiate blood clotting and minimize blood loss.
p.69
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are the types of Granulocytes?
Neutrophils, Eosinophils, and Basophils.
p.78
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic pathways in clotting?
Intrinsic pathway is activated by damage to the vessel, while extrinsic pathway is triggered by external trauma.
p.12
Respiratory Muscles and Ventilation
Which muscles are involved in forced expiration?
Internal intercostal muscles, transversus thoracis, external oblique, rectus abdominis, and internal oblique.
p.63
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the possible Rh blood types?
Rhesus positive and Rhesus negative.
p.147
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are lymph nodes?
The most numerous lymphatic organs in the body.
p.84
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the two major divisions of the cardiovascular system?
The pulmonary circuit and the systemic circuit.
p.102
Cardiovascular System Overview
What does the pulmonary valve control?
The opening from the right ventricle to the pulmonary trunk.
p.134
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the primary function of the venous system in the lower limb?
To return deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
p.122
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What do bronchial arteries supply?
Visceral pleura, esophagus, and bronchi of the lungs.
p.16
Mechanics of Breathing
What is the primary function of the Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG)?
It acts as the primary pacemaker of breathing.
p.120
Cardiovascular System Overview
What role do the arrows play in the context of the cardiac conducting system?
They indicate the direction of electrical signal travel.
p.147
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
How do lymph nodes help the body?
By helping to fight infection.
p.116
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the significance of the posterior aspect of the coronary blood vessels?
It plays a crucial role in the heart's blood supply.
p.120
Cardiovascular System Overview
What do electrical signals in the cardiac conducting system indicate?
They indicate the pathways for heart contractions.
p.139
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are the two main types of lymphatic trunks?
The right lymphatic trunk and the thoracic duct.
p.112
Cardiovascular System Overview
What causes coronary artery disease?
Atherosclerosis, which is the formation of fatty deposits on an arterial wall.
p.96
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the four chambers of the heart?
Right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, left ventricle.
p.95
Cardiovascular System Overview
How does the fibrous skeleton affect electrical conduction in the heart?
It serves as electrical insulation between the atria and ventricles.
p.50
Cardiovascular System Overview
What role do blood proteins play in regulating pH?
They stabilize the pH of extracellular fluids by buffering acids and bases.
p.36
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What do the rough superior and inferior surfaces of the vertebrae provide?
Firm attachment for the intervertebral discs.
p.145
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What role do lymph nodes play in the immune system?
They filter lymph and house immune cells.
p.47
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the main components of the circulatory system?
The heart, blood vessels, and blood.
p.95
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is one function of the fibrous skeleton?
Provides structural support.
p.115
Blood Supply to the Lungs
Why are coronary blood vessels important?
They provide oxygen and nutrients to the heart tissue.
p.142
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are macrophages?
Large phagocytic cells that ingest and destroy tissue debris, dead neutrophils, bacteria, and other foreign matter.
p.137
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is lymph?
The fluid that collects from the interstitial spaces of the tissues and returns to the bloodstream.
p.19
Pleural Membranes and Cavities
What is pneumothorax?
An abnormal accumulation of air in the pleural space between the parietal and visceral pleura.
p.16
Mechanics of Breathing
How does the VRG communicate with the muscles involved in breathing?
By sending signals through the intercostal and phrenic nerves.
p.147
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the typical shape and size of a lymph node?
An elongated or bean-shaped structure, usually less than 3 cm long.
p.147
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are the two main functions of lymph nodes?
Cleanse the lymph and act as a site of B and T cell activation.
p.9
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What happens to oxygen-rich blood from the alveolar capillaries?
It enters pulmonary venules, then pulmonary veins, and finally the left atrium.
p.134
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the major veins in the lower limb?
Femoral vein, popliteal vein, and tibial veins.
p.107
Cardiovascular System Overview
What does the anterior interventricular branch supply?
Blood to both ventricles and the anterior two-thirds of the interventricular septum.
p.134
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the role of perforating veins in the lower limb?
To connect superficial veins with deep veins.
p.15
Mechanics of Breathing
What is the function of the Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG)?
It is one of the respiratory centers that controls automatic breathing.
p.19
Pleural Membranes and Cavities
What are the risk factors for developing pneumothorax?
Smoking, being tall and thin.
p.109
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What do the coronary blood vessels supply?
They supply blood to the heart muscle.
p.84
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the function of the pulmonary circuit?
Carries blood to the lungs for gas exchange and returns it to the heart.
p.115
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the anterior aspect of the coronary blood vessels?
The front view of the coronary vessels as they supply the heart.
p.7
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
What type of cells make up the first layer of the respiratory membrane?
Squamous epithelial cells of the alveolus.
p.47
Cardiovascular System Overview
What does the term 'cardiovascular system' refer to?
Only the heart and blood vessels.
p.149
Trachea Anatomy and Function
What is the primary function of the trachealis muscle?
Allows contraction of the trachea.
p.23
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the number of thoracic vertebrae?
12 thoracic vertebrae (T1 - T12).
p.122
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What do mediastinal arteries supply?
The posterior mediastinum.
p.14
Mechanics of Breathing
What muscle contraction facilitates exhalation during forced breathing?
Contraction of internal intercostal muscles.
p.125
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the function of the hemiazygos vein?
It ascends the posterior thoracic wall on the left.
p.86
Cardiovascular System Overview
What does the inferior vena cava drain?
Everything below the diaphragm.
p.97
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the inferior chambers of the heart?
The right and left ventricles.
p.125
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the main veins associated with the posterior thoracic wall?
The azygous vein and hemiazygos vein.
p.35
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the function of the superior articular facet?
It allows for articulation with the inferior articular facet of the vertebra above.
p.28
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the superior thoracic aperture?
The opening at the top of the thoracic cavity that connects it to the neck.
p.50
Cardiovascular System Overview
How does blood flow help regulate body temperature?
By routing blood to the skin for heat loss or retaining blood deeper in the body to conserve heat.
p.92
Structure and Function of the Larynx
What anchors the fibrous pericardium?
Ligaments to the diaphragm, sternum, and mediastinal tissue.
p.108
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What do the coronary blood vessels supply?
They supply blood to the heart muscle.
p.92
Structure and Function of the Larynx
What is the pericardial cavity?
The space between the parietal and visceral membranes.
p.108
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the anterior aspect of the coronary blood vessels?
It refers to the front side of the heart where some coronary vessels are located.
p.65
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the significance of the Rh factor in blood transfusions?
It is important to determine to avoid incompatibility.
p.140
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the primary function of the thoracic duct?
Responsible for lymph drainage from most of the body.
p.104
Cardiovascular System Overview
What happens during the contraction of the left ventricle?
Blood is ejected through the aortic valve into the ascending aorta.
p.96
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is an auricle in relation to the atria?
An earlike extension of each atrium that increases volume.
p.133
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the role of the iliac arteries in the pelvic region?
They supply blood to the pelvis and lower limbs.
p.13
Mechanics of Breathing
What characterizes quiet breathing?
Active inhalation and passive exhalation.
p.28
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the inferior thoracic aperture?
The opening at the bottom of the thoracic cavity that separates it from the abdominal cavity.
p.109
Blood Supply to the Lungs
Where are the coronary blood vessels located?
On the posterior aspect of the heart.
p.109
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the significance of the posterior aspect of the coronary blood vessels?
It is crucial for supplying the heart's posterior regions.
p.123
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the location of the subcostal arteries?
Inferior to the 12th rib.
p.118
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the primary characteristic of the heart's rhythm?
The heart is autorhythmic, spontaneously contracting at regular intervals.
p.128
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What does the radial artery supply?
Lateral forearm muscles, wrist, thumb, and index finger.
p.85
Cardiovascular System Overview
What side of the heart supplies the pulmonary circuit?
The right side of the heart.
p.79
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What does Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) do?
Stimulates the production of new tissue to replace damaged tissue.
p.8
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What do the conducting pathways of the lungs receive?
Oxygen and nutrients from capillaries supplied by bronchial arteries.
p.134
Cardiovascular System Overview
How does muscle contraction aid venous return in the lower limb?
By compressing the veins and pushing blood towards the heart.
p.146
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
How does the thymus extend in the body?
It extends upwards into the root of the neck.
p.85
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
What happens to the oxygen-poor blood in the lungs?
CO2 is removed and O2 is picked up.
p.102
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the two types of semilunar valves?
Pulmonary valve and aortic valve.
p.15
Mechanics of Breathing
What are the two levels at which breathing is controlled in the brain?
Cerebral (conscious) and automatic (unconscious).
p.91
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the pericardium?
A double-walled sac enclosing the heart.
p.112
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is a myocardial infarction?
When the artery becomes so blocked that cardiac muscle begins to die from lack of oxygen.
p.106
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the primary function of coronary circulation?
To supply blood, oxygen, and nutrients to the heart.
p.91
Cardiovascular System Overview
What characterizes the fibrous pericardium?
It is a tough fibrous sac.
p.49
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What do white blood cells (WBCs) do?
They destroy microorganisms and cancer cells.
p.7
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
What is located between the alveolar and endothelial cells in the respiratory membrane?
Fused basement membranes.
p.142
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
Where are dendritic cells found?
In the epidermis, lymphatic organs, and mucous membranes.
p.78
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is fibrin?
A protein that forms a mesh to stabilize the blood clot.
p.106
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What does the myocardium have for blood supply?
Its own supply of arteries and capillaries.
p.15
Mechanics of Breathing
What is the purpose of the Pontine Respiratory Group (PRG)?
It helps regulate the rhythm of breathing.
p.81
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What type of defect is associated with sickle cell disease?
A hereditary hemoglobin defect.
p.94
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the vortex of the heart?
A spiral arrangement of cardiomyocytes that helps in heart contraction.
p.50
Cardiovascular System Overview
How does blood help maintain optimal fluid balance in the body?
By absorbing or giving off fluid under different conditions.
p.9
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What does each lobule of the lung receive?
An arteriole and a venule.
p.95
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the fibrous skeleton of the heart?
A connective tissue framework.
p.102
Cardiovascular System Overview
What does the aortic valve control?
The opening from the left ventricle into the aorta.
p.23
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
How many cervical vertebrae are there?
7 cervical vertebrae (C1 - C7).
p.15
Mechanics of Breathing
Which part of the brain controls automatic breathing?
The medulla oblongata and pons of the brainstem.
p.77
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the role of serotonin in the body?
Causes vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels).
p.108
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What does the term 'posterior aspect' refer to in coronary blood vessels?
It refers to the back side of the heart where other coronary vessels extend.
p.8
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What are the two blood supplies to the lungs?
One for the conducting division and another for the respiratory division.
p.78
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What role do platelets play in clotting?
They aggregate at the site of injury and form a temporary plug.
p.148
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is one of the main functions of the spleen?
To filter blood by removing old red blood cells.
p.107
Cardiovascular System Overview
What does the left marginal branch of the circumflex branch supply?
Blood to the left ventricle.
p.135
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What role do lymph nodes play in the lymphatic system?
They filter lymph and house immune cells that respond to pathogens.
p.110
Blood Supply to the Lungs
Where does the RCA continue after supplying the right atrium?
Along the coronary sulcus under the right auricle.
p.140
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What areas does the right lymphatic duct drain?
The right sides of the head and neck, the right side of the thorax, and the right upper extremity.
p.135
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the primary function of the lymphatic system?
To maintain fluid balance and support the immune system.
p.78
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are the main components involved in the clotting process?
Platelets, clotting factors, and fibrin.
p.47
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the primary function of the circulatory system?
To transport substances from one site in the body to another via the blood.
p.118
Cardiovascular System Overview
What happens to some cardiomyocytes in the heart?
They have lost the ability to contract and are specialized for generating and conducting electrical signals.
p.104
Cardiovascular System Overview
What valve does blood flow through from the left atrium to the left ventricle?
The left AV (mitral) valve.
p.136
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is one of the primary functions of the lymphatic system?
Helps to maintain the body’s fluid balance.
p.91
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the two layers of the serous layer of the pericardium?
The parietal layer and the visceral layer.
p.94
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are cardiomyocytes?
Muscle cells of the heart that are grouped in bundles.
p.65
Cardiovascular System Overview
What types of transfusions can someone with Rh+ blood receive?
Both Rh+ and Rh- transfusions.
p.106
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What constitutes the coronary circulation?
The blood vessels of the heart wall.
p.121
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What does the thoracic aorta send off?
Numerous small branches to the thoracic viscera and the body wall.
p.85
Cardiovascular System Overview
How is the now oxygenated blood returned to the heart?
By way of the pulmonary veins.
p.148
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the function of the tonsils?
To guard against ingested or inhaled pathogens.
p.68
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
How long do leukocytes typically spend in the blood?
A short time before migrating to the tissues.
p.72
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are the non-specific functions of lymphocytes?
They can act against viruses and cancer.
p.100
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the two types of Atrioventricular (AV) valves?
Right AV valve (tricuspid) and Left AV valve (bicuspid).
p.97
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the function of the right ventricle?
To pump blood only to the lungs and back to the left atrium.
p.141
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What do B lymphocytes (B cells) differentiate into?
Plasma cells that produce antibodies in response to specific infections.
p.35
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the role of the inferior articular facet?
It articulates with the superior articular facet of the vertebra below.
p.116
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What are the coronary blood vessels responsible for?
Supplying blood to the heart muscle.
p.144
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is a dendritic cell?
An antigen presenting cell.
p.120
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the primary function of the cardiac conducting system?
To transmit electrical signals throughout the heart.
p.7
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
What is the primary function of the respiratory membrane?
The site of gas exchange.
p.115
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What are the coronary blood vessels responsible for?
Supplying blood to the heart muscle.
p.25
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the function of spinal curvatures?
They help absorb stress from body movement and gravity.
p.145
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the function of the tonsils?
To trap pathogens entering through the mouth and nose.
p.139
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the function of the right lymphatic trunk?
It collects lymph from the right side of the body.
p.104
Cardiovascular System Overview
How does blood return from the lungs to the heart?
By way of two pulmonary veins on the left and two on the right.
p.71
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What do monocytes transform into when they leave the blood?
Large phagocytic cells called macrophages.
p.139
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the thoracic duct responsible for?
It collects lymph from the left side of the body and lower body.
p.71
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the primary function of monocytes?
To function in infections, destroy dead or dying host cells, and attack infecting agents.
p.92
Structure and Function of the Larynx
What does the pericardial fluid do?
Lubricates the membranes and allows minimal friction.
p.128
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What areas does the ulnar artery supply?
Medial forearm, digits III to V, and the median aspect of the index finger.
p.117
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What does coronary circulation refer to?
The flow of blood to and from the tissues of the heart.
p.131
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the main artery supplying the pelvic region?
The aorta, which branches into common iliac arteries.
p.34
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What are articular facets?
They are smooth surfaces on the ribs that articulate with the vertebrae.
p.111
Cardiovascular System Overview
What can cause necrosis in the myocardium?
Any interruption of the blood supply.
p.23
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
How many lumbar vertebrae are present in the lower back?
5 lumbar vertebrae (L1 - L5).
p.44
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What does the sternal angle mark the boundary of?
The superior and inferior mediastinum.
p.68
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are leukocytes commonly known as?
White blood cells (WBCs).
p.52
Cardiovascular System Overview
Name the types of Granulocytes.
Neutrophils, Eosinophils, and Basophils.
p.111
Cardiovascular System Overview
What can lead to a myocardial infarction (MI)?
A fatty deposit or blood clot in a coronary artery.
p.66
Cardiovascular System Overview
What determines the ABO blood types?
The terminal carbohydrates of glycolipids.
p.100
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the primary function of heart valves?
To ensure blood flows in one direction and prevent backflow.
p.38
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
In which direction is the spinous process directed?
Toward the rear and downward.
p.116
Blood Supply to the Lungs
Where are the coronary blood vessels located?
On the posterior aspect of the heart.
p.123
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What are the parietal branches of the arterial supply to the thorax?
Posterior intercostal arteries, subcostal arteries, and superior phrenic arteries.
p.102
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the function of semilunar valves?
Regulate the flow of blood from the ventricles to the great arteries.
p.123
Blood Supply to the Lungs
Which arteries supply the diaphragm?
Superior phrenic arteries.
p.7
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
What are the three layers of the respiratory membrane?
1. Squamous epithelial cells of the alveolus, 2. Endothelial cells lining an adjacent capillary, 3. Fused basement membranes between the alveolar and endothelial cells.
p.71
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are monocytes?
The largest type of white blood cells (WBCs).
p.56
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
Why are erythrocytes sunken in the center?
Due to the absence of a nucleus.
p.86
Cardiovascular System Overview
What does the aorta do?
It delivers oxygen (O2) to every organ of the body.
p.107
Cardiovascular System Overview
What does the left coronary artery (LCA) divide into?
Anterior interventricular branch and circumflex branch.
p.79
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What happens after blood vessel damage has been sealed?
The clot must be broken down again.
p.122
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the function of esophageal arteries?
They supply the esophagus.
p.118
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the typical heart rate for a resting adult?
About 75 beats per minute (bpm).
p.148
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
Where is the spleen located?
In the upper left abdomen, inferior to the diaphragm.
p.133
Cardiovascular System Overview
What does the arterial schematic of the pelvic region illustrate?
The blood supply to the pelvic region and lower limb.
p.33
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is an articular facet?
A part of the vertebra that attaches to the next vertebra, situated between the pedicle and lamina of the same vertebra.
p.47
Cardiovascular System Overview
What role does blood play in the circulatory system?
It is the liquid medium in which materials travel.
p.110
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What does the right coronary artery (RCA) supply?
The right atrium and sinoatrial node (pacemaker).
p.80
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is anaemia?
A deficiency of red blood cells (RBC).
p.15
Mechanics of Breathing
What is the role of the Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG)?
It is involved in the regulation of automatic breathing.
p.121
Blood Supply to the Lungs
Where does the thoracic aorta begin?
Distal to the aortic arch.
p.101
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are semilunar valves?
Valves located at the exit of the heart's ventricles that prevent backflow of blood.
p.148
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
How does the spleen contribute to the immune system?
It plays a role in both cell-mediated and humoral immune responses.
p.99
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the primary function of the heart?
To pump blood throughout the body.
p.80
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is haemophilia?
A hereditary disorder causing abnormally slow blood clotting due to a deficiency in a blood clotting factor.
p.83
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the two main circuits of the cardiovascular system?
The pulmonary circuit and the systemic circuit.
p.44
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What type of joint is the sternal angle?
Synarthrosis (no movement).
p.97
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the primary function of the ventricles?
To pump blood into the arteries and keep it flowing.
p.86
Cardiovascular System Overview
What part of the heart supplies the systemic circuit?
The left half of the heart.
p.112
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is coronary artery disease?
A narrowing of the coronary arteries leading to insufficient blood flow to maintain the myocardium.
p.84
Cardiovascular System Overview
What does the systemic circuit supply blood to?
Every organ of the body, including the lungs and the wall of the heart itself.
p.25
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What happens when spinal curvatures are misaligned?
Disorders of the spine occur, leading to exaggerated curvatures in certain areas.
p.86
Cardiovascular System Overview
How does blood return to the heart after gas exchange?
By way of the body's two largest veins: the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava.
p.136
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the lymphatic system?
A network of tissues, organs, and vessels.
p.103
Cardiovascular System Overview
How is blood kept separate in the heart?
Blood in the right and left chambers of the heart is kept separate.
p.65
Cardiovascular System Overview
What happens to RBCs with Rh-positive glycolipids?
They will not make anti-Rh antibodies.
p.117
Blood Supply to the Lungs
Why is coronary circulation important?
It provides oxygen and nutrients to the heart muscle.
p.85
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the large artery that the right side of the heart pumps blood into?
The pulmonary trunk (pulmonary artery).
p.136
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What happens to fluid in blood capillaries?
They lose fluid to the tissue spaces.
p.33
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
Where is the superior articular facet located?
It joins the inferior costal facet of the vertebra above.
p.132
Cardiovascular System Overview
Where does the small saphenous vein drain?
It drains blood from the posterior aspect of the leg.
p.80
Blood Supply to the Lungs
How is haemophilia treated?
With injections of the missing blood clotting factor.
p.81
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the prevalence of sickle cell disease among African Americans?
1 in 365 African Americans.
p.22
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the sternum?
A flat bone located in the center of the chest.
p.94
Cardiovascular System Overview
What does the endocardium do?
Lines the interior of the heart chambers and covers the valves.
p.24
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is a unique feature of thoracic vertebrae compared to other vertebrae?
No other vertebrae have ribs.
p.39
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is a distinctive feature of all seven cervical vertebrae?
They have a prominent round transverse foramen in each transverse process.
p.11
Respiratory Muscles and Ventilation
Is inhalation active or passive?
Inhalation is always active.
p.141
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the role of Regulatory T cells (TR)?
They help maintain immune tolerance and prevent autoimmune responses.
p.39
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the role of the vertebral veins?
They drain blood from various neck structures.
p.78
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the primary function of blood clotting?
To prevent excessive bleeding after an injury.
p.145
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the primary function of the spleen?
To filter blood and recycle iron.
p.49
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What role does blood play in inflammation?
It limits the spread of infection.
p.25
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is scoliosis?
A lateral displacement or curvature of the spine.
p.121
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What supplies the thorax with blood?
Several arteries arising directly from the aorta and from the subclavian and axillary arteries.
p.71
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are microglia?
Specific names for monocytes in the brain.
p.108
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the function of the branches of coronary blood vessels?
They extend to supply different regions of the heart.
p.118
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the function of the cardiac conduction system?
It controls the route and timing of stimulation to ensure coordination of the four heart chambers.
p.47
Cardiovascular System Overview
How do blood vessels contribute to the circulatory system?
They ensure the proper routing of blood to its destinations.
p.132
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the function of the great saphenous vein?
It drains blood from the superficial structures of the leg and thigh.
p.131
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What does the external iliac artery supply?
The skin and muscles of the abdominal wall and pelvic girdle, and it gives rise to branches for the lower limb.
p.77
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is haemostasis?
The process of blood clot formation.
p.42
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the location of the sternum in relation to the heart?
It is a bony plate anterior to the heart.
p.110
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What does the RCA supply on the posterior side of the heart?
The atrioventricular node and the posterior walls of both ventricles.
p.101
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the function of the aortic semilunar valve?
To prevent backflow of blood from the aorta into the left ventricle.
p.99
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the role of the atria in the heart?
To receive blood from the body and lungs.
p.127
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What are the two arteries that the Brachial artery divides into?
Radial and ulnar arteries.
p.129
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the function of the superior vena cava?
It collects deoxygenated blood from the upper body and returns it to the heart.
p.127
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What does the Subclavian artery supply?
Branches to the thoracic wall and viscera.
p.110
Blood Supply to the Lungs
How does the RCA end?
By joining the anterior interventricular branch of the left coronary artery (LCA).
p.99
Cardiovascular System Overview
What valves are present in the heart?
Atrioventricular valves (tricuspid and mitral) and semilunar valves (pulmonary and aortic).
p.129
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the role of the median cubital vein?
It connects the basilic and cephalic veins and is commonly used for venipuncture.
p.73
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are platelets?
Fragments of bone marrow cells called megakaryocytes.
p.29
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What type of impulses does the vagus nerve carry?
Parasympathetic impulses.
p.82
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is leukemia?
A cancer of the hematopoietic tissues.
p.93
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the function of the epicardium?
Covers the external surface of the heart and is a serous membrane.
p.70
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
How do basophils affect blood flow to tissues?
By secreting histamine, which increases blood flow.
p.57
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the normal RBC count for females?
4.2 to 5.4 million per microlitre (uL).
p.27
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the function of costal cartilage?
Allows for expansion during respiration.
p.112
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is a consequence of atherosclerosis in coronary artery disease?
Arterial breakdown and obstruction of blood flow.
p.107
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the function of the circumflex branch of the LCA?
It supplies blood to the left atrium and posterior wall of the left ventricle.
p.52
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the two main types of leukocytes?
Granulocytes and Agranulocytes.
p.96
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the function of the atria?
They receive blood returning to the heart through the great veins and pump it into the ventricles.
p.146
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
Where is the thymus located?
Behind the sternum in the upper mediastinum.
p.131
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What does the internal iliac artery supply?
The pelvic wall and viscera.
p.71
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are alveolar macrophages?
Specific names for monocytes in the lungs.
p.49
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
How do antibodies contribute to immune response?
They neutralize toxins and help destroy pathogens.
p.118
Cardiovascular System Overview
How does the heart pump blood?
By itself, through the coordinated action of the cardiac conduction system.
p.69
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are the two main categories of white blood cells (WBCs)?
Granulocytes and Agranulocytes.
p.111
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is a myocardial infarction?
The sudden death of a patch of tissue deprived of its blood flow.
p.140
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
Which parts of the body are excluded from drainage by the right lymphatic duct?
The entire body except for the right sides of the head and neck, the right side of the thorax, and the right upper extremity.
p.67
Blood Supply to the Lungs
Why will O blood group not be attacked during a transfusion?
Because it has no A or B antigens to trigger antibodies in the recipient's blood.
p.44
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What does the sternum help to protect?
The heart, lungs, and major blood vessels.
p.141
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are the seven types of lymphatic cells?
Neutrophils, Natural killer cells, T lymphocytes (T cells), Cytotoxic T cells (Tc), T Helper cells (TH), Regulatory T cells (TR), Memory T cells, and B lymphocytes (B cells).
p.83
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the primary function of the systemic circuit?
To carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body and return deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
p.31
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the function of the costal cartilage?
It connects the rib to the sternum and allows for flexibility during breathing.
p.64
Cardiovascular System Overview
What happens when type B blood is transfused into a person with blood type A?
The antibodies will bind to the RBCs and cause agglutination.
p.119
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the function of the atrioventricular (AV) node?
It serves as the electrical gateway to the ventricles.
p.83
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the size and shape of the heart?
The heart is roughly the size of a fist and has a conical shape.
p.2
Structure and Function of the Larynx
What does the cricotracheal ligament connect?
It binds the cricoid cartilage to the trachea.
p.6
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
How is the blood supply to the alveoli provided?
Through pulmonary capillaries that surround each alveolus.
p.10
Mechanics of Breathing
What type of muscle contraction is involved in breathing?
Contraction of skeletal muscles.
p.4
Pleural Membranes and Cavities
What is the function of pleural fluid?
It lubricates the space between the two layers and prevents friction as the lungs expand and contract.
p.99
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the role of the coronary arteries?
To supply blood to the heart muscle itself.
p.129
Cardiovascular System Overview
Which veins drain the forearm?
Radial veins and Ulnar veins.
p.119
Cardiovascular System Overview
What determines the heart rate?
The sinoatrial (SA) node.
p.30
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What are the main parts of each rib?
Head, neck, and tubercle.
p.119
Cardiovascular System Overview
What do the left and right bundle branches do?
They descend towards the apex of the heart.
p.135
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are the main components of the lymphatic system?
Lymph, lymph nodes, lymph vessels, and lymphoid organs.
p.72
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are lymphocytes?
The smallest white blood cells (WBCs).
p.135
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
How does the lymphatic system contribute to the immune response?
By transporting lymphocytes and filtering pathogens through lymph nodes.
p.132
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the primary veins of the lower limb?
The great saphenous vein and the small saphenous vein.
p.23
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
Where are the sacral vertebrae located?
At the base of the spine.
p.101
Cardiovascular System Overview
Where are the semilunar valves located?
At the exit of the right ventricle (pulmonary valve) and the left ventricle (aortic valve).
p.146
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the primary function of the thymus?
It influences T cells maturity.
p.135
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the significance of lymphatic vessels?
They transport lymph throughout the body and return it to the bloodstream.
p.90
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
How does the size of the heart compare to a person's fist?
The heart is roughly the same size as the fist, regardless of body size.
p.34
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
How many articular facets does each rib typically have?
Two articular facets for articulation with adjacent vertebrae.
p.131
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What are the two branches of the popliteal artery?
Anterior and posterior tibial arteries.
p.31
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the significance of the rib head?
It articulates with the vertebrae.
p.80
Blood Supply to the Lungs
How is infectious mononucleosis commonly transmitted?
Through saliva, often referred to as the kissing disease.
p.29
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the function of the vagus nerve (CN X)?
It innervates thoracic and abdominal viscera with parasympathetic impulses.
p.87
Cardiovascular System Overview
Which vessels are classified as great vessels?
Pulmonary trunk, pulmonary veins, aorta, superior vena cava, inferior vena cava.
p.126
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What are the two circumflex humeral arteries?
Anterior and posterior circumflex humeral arteries.
p.82
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is leukocytosis?
An abnormally high white blood cell count, often caused by infection or allergy.
p.46
Cardiovascular System Overview
What types of blood vessels are part of the cardiovascular system?
Arteries, veins, and capillaries.
p.74
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is thrombopoiesis?
The process of platelet production.
p.37
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the function of the spinous and transverse processes?
They provide points of attachment for spinal muscles and ligaments.
p.57
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What does haematocrit measure?
The percentage of blood volume made up of RBCs.
p.70
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the function of heparin in the immune system?
It promotes the mobility of other white blood cells by preventing blood clotting.
p.106
Blood Supply to the Lungs
How many times can the heart beat in a lifetime?
More than 3 billion times.
p.94
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the function of the pericardium?
It forms the outer layer of the heart, providing protection.
p.127
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the origin of the Axillary artery?
It is a continuation of the Subclavian artery.
p.34
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the function of articular facets in rib anatomy?
They allow for the connection and movement between the ribs and the spine.
p.107
Cardiovascular System Overview
Where does the circumflex branch end?
On the posterior side of the heart.
p.6
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
What are pulmonary alveoli?
Clusters of alveoli that facilitate gas exchange.
p.71
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are Kupffer cells?
Specific names for monocytes in the liver, also known as stellate cells.
p.101
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the function of the pulmonary semilunar valve?
To prevent backflow of blood from the pulmonary artery into the right ventricle.
p.129
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the major veins that drain the upper limb?
Basilic vein, Cephalic vein, Brachial veins, and Axillary vein.
p.149
Trachea Anatomy and Function
What is the lumen of the trachea?
The hollow space within the trachea.
p.141
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the function of T lymphocytes (T cells)?
They play a crucial role in the immune response, including CD8+ cytotoxic T cells and CD4+ T Helper cells.
p.83
Cardiovascular System Overview
Where is the heart generally located?
In the thoracic cavity, between the lungs and slightly to the left of the midline.
p.72
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the main role of lymphocytes?
In adaptive immunity (specific immune response).
p.137
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are lymphatic organs?
Concentrations of lymph cells surrounded by connective tissue capsules.
p.64
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the potential consequences of agglutination in blood transfusions?
Blockages of small blood vessels and damage to major organs such as the brain, heart, kidneys, and lungs.
p.66
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the significance of the O blood type?
It has no A or B antigens on the surface of red blood cells.
p.66
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the role of terminal carbohydrates in blood type compatibility?
They determine the presence or absence of antigens that can trigger immune responses.
p.10
Mechanics of Breathing
What is the 'bucket handle movement'?
The movement of the rib cage during breathing.
p.69
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are Agranulocytes?
WBCs that do not have granules, including Lymphocytes and Monocytes.
p.10
Mechanics of Breathing
How does air move into and out of the lungs?
By changing the volume of the lungs.
p.39
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is unique about the transverse foramina?
They are found only in the cervical vertebrae.
p.1
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What are the three types of nasal conchae?
Superior, middle, and inferior nasal conchae.
p.61
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What type of cells does red bone marrow contain?
Blood stem cells, specifically haematopoietic stem cells (HSC).
p.18
Respiratory Muscles and Ventilation
What are the two groups of respiratory centers in the medulla oblongata?
Dorsal respiratory group (DRG) and Ventral respiratory group (VRG).
p.133
Cardiovascular System Overview
Which major arteries are involved in the blood supply to the lower limb?
The femoral artery, popliteal artery, and tibial arteries.
p.77
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the two main purposes of blood clot formation?
Prevents blood loss from the body and limits pathogenic access to the bloodstream when the skin is broken.
p.90
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the maximum thickness of the adult heart?
6 cm from anterior to posterior.
p.117
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What are the main arteries involved in coronary circulation?
The left and right coronary arteries.
p.91
Cardiovascular System Overview
What does the parietal layer of the pericardium do?
Lines the inside of the fibrous pericardium.
p.117
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What happens if coronary circulation is impaired?
It can lead to conditions such as angina or myocardial infarction (heart attack).
p.83
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the primary function of the pulmonary circuit?
To carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and return oxygenated blood back to the heart.
p.31
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What are the main parts of a rib?
The head, neck, tubercle, body (shaft), and costal cartilage.
p.133
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the significance of the popliteal artery?
It is a continuation of the femoral artery behind the knee.
p.2
Structure and Function of the Larynx
What does the thyrohyoid ligament connect?
It binds the thyroid cartilage to the hyoid bone.
p.64
Cardiovascular System Overview
What antibodies does a person with blood type A have?
Antibodies against type B.
p.11
Respiratory Muscles and Ventilation
What are the primary respiratory muscles?
The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles of the ribs.
p.81
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What shape do red blood cells take in sickle cell disease?
Elongated, stiffened, and sickle-shaped.
p.68
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
Do leukocytes contain organelles?
Yes, unlike red blood cells (RBCs).
p.46
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the primary function of the cardiovascular system?
To transport blood, nutrients, gases, and waste products throughout the body.
p.24
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is one function of the thoracic vertebrae?
To support the thoracic cage enclosing the heart and lungs.
p.39
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What structures pass through the transverse foramina of cervical vertebrae?
The vertebral arteries and vertebral veins.
p.87
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the function of the aorta?
It carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the body.
p.57
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the normal RBC count for men?
4.6 to 6.2 million per microlitre (uL).
p.4
Pleural Membranes and Cavities
What is the pulmonary ligament?
A structure derived from the pleura that helps attach the lung to the mediastinum.
p.93
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What are cardiomyocytes?
Cells of the cardiac muscle.
p.130
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the role of the circumflex femoral arteries?
To supply blood to the hip joint and surrounding muscles.
p.93
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the primary role of the myocardium?
Performs the work of the heart.
p.75
Cardiovascular System Overview
What triggers platelet activation?
Exposure to collagen and other substances at the site of injury.
p.142
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the function of dendritic cells?
They engulf foreign matter.
p.127
Blood Supply to the Lungs
Where does the Axillary artery end?
At the neck of the humerus.
p.110
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the function of the right marginal branch of the RCA?
It runs toward the apex of the heart and supplies the lateral aspect of the right atrium and ventricle.
p.72
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
When can lymphocyte counts increase?
During infections and immune responses.
p.119
Cardiovascular System Overview
What initiates each heartbeat in the cardiac conducting system?
The sinoatrial (SA) node.
p.80
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is septic aemia?
A bacterial infection of the blood that can cause fever, chills, nausea, and may lead to septic shock.
p.110
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the large branch given off by the RCA called?
The posterior interventricular branch.
p.2
Structure and Function of the Larynx
What is the role of the cricothyroid ligament?
It binds the thyroid cartilage to the cricoid cartilage.
p.99
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the function of the ventricles?
To pump blood out of the heart.
p.88
Cardiovascular System Overview
Where is the heart located?
In the thoracic cavity in the mediastinum between the lungs, deep to the sternum.
p.4
Pleural Membranes and Cavities
What are the two layers of the pleura?
Parietal pleura and visceral pleura.
p.105
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the purpose of the pulmonary artery?
To carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
p.119
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the role of conducting cardiac myofibers?
To distribute electrical excitation to the myocytes of the ventricles.
p.76
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What role do platelets play in haemostasis?
They release serotonin, causing vasoconstriction to reduce blood loss.
p.150
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the lifespan of most white blood cells (WBCs)?
Less than one week, except for monocytes and lymphocytes.
p.63
Cardiovascular System Overview
What determines blood types?
The type of glycolipid on the surface of the red blood cells (RBCs).
p.61
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What are the two types of bone marrow?
Red and yellow bone marrow.
p.12
Respiratory Muscles and Ventilation
What role do the scalene muscles play in respiration?
They assist in elevating the first two ribs during inhalation.
p.74
Blood Supply to the Lungs
Where is thrombopoietin produced?
In the liver and kidneys.
p.27
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What are the superior and inferior thoracic apertures?
Openings that allow structures to pass through the rib cage.
p.27
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is a key characteristic of the rib cage?
It is strong and protective but also flexible.
p.30
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the angle of the ribs?
The curvature of the ribs.
p.41
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
What is the role of capillaries in the respiratory system?
Facilitate gas exchange with alveoli.
p.103
Cardiovascular System Overview
What structures bring blood to the right atrium?
The superior and inferior venae cavae.
p.136
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
How does the lymphatic system contribute to fluid balance?
It picks up excess tissue fluid and returns it to the bloodstream.
p.133
Cardiovascular System Overview
How does blood flow from the heart to the lower limb?
Through the aorta, which branches into the common iliac arteries.
p.103
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the pathway of blood from the right atrium to the right ventricle?
Flows directly from the right atrium, through the right AV valve, into the right ventricle.
p.65
Cardiovascular System Overview
What condition can result from Rh incompatibility between mother and fetus?
Severe anemia in the newborn (hemolytic disease of the newborn - HDN).
p.103
Cardiovascular System Overview
What happens when the right ventricle contracts?
It ejects blood through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary trunk.
p.69
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
Why are Neutrophils called polymorphonuclear (PMN) leukocytes?
Due to the different shapes of their nuclei.
p.29
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What nerves cross at the root of the neck?
Right and left vagus nerve, right and left phrenic nerve.
p.32
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the primary function of rib articulation with vertebrae?
To provide stability and flexibility to the thoracic cage.
p.10
Mechanics of Breathing
What is the effect of rib and sternum elevation?
It contributes to the movement of the rib cage.
p.69
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the primary function of Neutrophils?
To phagocytose (eat/digest) bacteria.
p.98
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What does the coronary sulcus separate?
The atria above from the ventricles below.
p.70
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the role of eosinophils in the immune response?
Their numbers increase during parasitic infections and allergies.
p.93
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What are the three layers of the pericardium?
Epicardium, Myocardium, and Endocardium.
p.73
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the normal platelet count range?
130,000 to 400,000 platelets/uL.
p.126
Blood Supply to the Lungs
Which artery provides collateral circulation to the ulnar artery?
Superior ulnar collateral artery.
p.75
Cardiovascular System Overview
What role do platelets play in blood circulation?
They are crucial for blood clotting and wound healing.
p.126
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What are the two main palmar arches in the hand?
Deep palmar arch and superficial palmar arch.
p.1
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the function of the nasal cavity in relation to incoming air?
To warm and humidify incoming air.
p.59
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the function of the iron atom in heme?
It serves as the binding site for O2 (oxygen).
p.59
Blood Supply to the Lungs
How is CO2 transported in the blood?
Bound to the globins of haemoglobin.
p.75
Cardiovascular System Overview
What can happen if platelet levels are too high?
It can increase the risk of thrombosis and heart attacks.
p.21
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
What is the function of the inferior vena cava?
To return deoxygenated blood from the lower body to the heart.
p.52
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the types of Agranulocytes?
Lymphocytes and Monocytes.
p.47
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the function of the heart in the circulatory system?
It is the pump that keeps the blood flowing.
p.66
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are glycolipids?
Lipids with carbohydrate groups attached, important for cell recognition.
p.6
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
What is the primary function of alveoli?
To allow for gas exchange between air and blood.
p.44
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the primary function of the sternum?
To protect vital organs in the thoracic cavity.
p.137
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
Where is lymphatic tissue found?
In many organs of the body.
p.110
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What does the posterior interventricular branch supply?
The posterior walls of both ventricles and the posterior portion of the interventricular septum.
p.119
Cardiovascular System Overview
What does the atrioventricular (AV) bundle do?
It carries signals from the AV node and branches into left and right bundle branches.
p.80
Blood Supply to the Lungs
How long does infectious mononucleosis usually last?
It usually resolves within a few weeks.
p.99
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the purpose of the heart valves?
To ensure unidirectional blood flow.
p.97
Cardiovascular System Overview
What separates the right and left ventricles?
The interventricular septum.
p.4
Pleural Membranes and Cavities
How does the pleura assist during respiration?
It creates a pressure gradient.
p.130
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the function of the genicular arteries?
To supply blood to the knee joint.
p.93
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
How does the thickness of the myocardium relate to the heart's workload?
The thickness is proportional to the workload on individual chambers.
p.21
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
What do the right pulmonary veins do?
They carry oxygenated blood from the right lung to the heart.
p.30
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the costotransverse joint?
The joint where the tubercle of the rib interacts with the transverse process.
p.63
Cardiovascular System Overview
What role do glycolipids play in blood types?
They act as antigens that can cause an immune response.
p.41
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the function of the descending aorta?
Carries oxygenated blood to the lower body.
p.137
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are lymphatic capillaries?
The smallest vessels in the lymphatic system.
p.148
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are tonsils?
Patches of lymphatic tissues at the entrance to the pharynx.
p.142
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are reticular cells?
Cells found in the stroma of lymphatic organs.
p.33
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What does the inferior articular facet join?
The superior costal facet of the vertebra below.
p.136
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What role does the lymphatic system play in immune defense?
It provides immune cells for defense.
p.42
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What are the three subdivisions of the sternum?
The manubrium, body, and xiphoid process.
p.78
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the final product of the clotting process?
A stable blood clot that seals the wound.
p.42
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
At which vertebrae levels does the manubrium lie?
At the level of vertebrae T3 to T4.
p.141
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the role of Memory T cells?
They are important in our vaccine response.
p.11
Respiratory Muscles and Ventilation
What are the two types of exhalation?
Active (forced breathing) and passive (quiet breathing).
p.37
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What borders the vertebral foramen?
A bony vertebral arch composed of a pedicle and a lamina.
p.27
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
How many pairs of ribs are there in total?
12 pairs (24 ribs in total).
p.150
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is erythropoiesis?
The production of red blood cells (erythrocytes).
p.27
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What are the false ribs?
Ribs 8 to 12 that attach indirectly to the sternum.
p.63
Cardiovascular System Overview
What does the Rh group indicate?
The presence or absence of the Rhesus protein on RBCs.
p.126
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the role of the dorsal carpal arch?
To supply blood to the back of the hand.
p.1
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What role do circulating air currents play in the nasal cavity?
They carry olfactory stimuli to the olfactory receptors.
p.51
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the types of formed elements in blood?
Red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets.
p.20
Mechanics of Breathing
What is the function of the diaphragm in the thoracic cavity?
It aids in breathing by contracting and relaxing to change thoracic volume.
p.53
Blood Supply to the Lungs
Which organ is responsible for producing many blood proteins?
The liver (except for gamma globulins).
p.135
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is lymph?
A clear fluid that circulates through the lymphatic system, containing white blood cells.
p.100
Cardiovascular System Overview
Where are the heart valves located?
Between each atrium and its corresponding ventricle, and at the exit from each ventricle into its great artery.
p.22
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What anatomical landmark is referred to as the sternal angle?
The angle formed between the manubrium and the body of the sternum.
p.24
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
How many thoracic vertebrae are there?
12 thoracic vertebrae (T1 – T12).
p.106
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What arteries are given off by the aorta after it leaves the left ventricle?
The right and left coronary arteries.
p.8
Blood Supply to the Lungs
Where does venous blood from the lungs flow?
Into the pulmonary veins.
p.6
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
What is the structure of an alveolus?
A thin-walled sac surrounded by capillaries.
p.87
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the great vessels?
The great arteries and veins with relatively large diameters.
p.4
Pleural Membranes and Cavities
What surrounds each lung?
A double membrane called the pleura.
p.6
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
What comprises the respiratory membrane?
The alveolar epithelium, capillary endothelium, and their fused basement membranes.
p.26
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What can cause scoliosis?
Congenital factors, neuromuscular conditions, or idiopathic reasons.
p.129
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the two types of venous networks in the palm?
Superficial venous palmar arch and Deep venous palmar arch.
p.37
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What do the vertebral foramina collectively form?
The vertebral canal, a passage for the spinal cord.
p.31
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What are the types of ribs based on their attachment?
True ribs, false ribs, and floating ribs.
p.98
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What internal wall do the interventricular sulci overlie?
The interventricular septum.
p.126
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What are the two main arteries that supply the forearm?
Radial artery and ulnar artery.
p.59
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is haemoglobin?
An iron-containing gas transport protein found in red blood cells (RBCs).
p.82
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are the consequences of thrombocytopenia?
It leads to impaired clotting when a vessel is injured and increased spontaneous bleeding.
p.73
Cardiovascular System Overview
How do platelets contribute to clot formation?
They stick together to form platelet plugs.
p.76
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the composition of a blood clot?
Fibrin, platelets, and blood cells.
p.30
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What does the tubercle of the rib interact with?
The transverse process of the vertebrae.
p.12
Respiratory Muscles and Ventilation
Which muscle helps stabilize the rib cage during respiration?
Serratus anterior muscle.
p.21
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
What is the role of the superior vena cava?
To return deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the heart.
p.20
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the thoracic duct associated with?
The lymphatic and immune system.
p.79
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the role of plasmin in the clotting process?
It dissolves the old clot.
p.2
Structure and Function of the Larynx
What is the primary function of ligaments in the larynx?
They bind together all laryngeal cartilages.
p.68
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the primary function of leukocytes?
To provide protection against microbial infections and other diseases.
p.64
Cardiovascular System Overview
What determines the compatibility of donor and recipient blood in transfusions?
The antigens on the surface of RBCs and the antibodies in the blood.
p.137
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is lymphatic tissue composed of?
Lymphocytes and macrophages.
p.24
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What do the thoracic vertebrae correspond to?
The 12 pairs of ribs attached to them.
p.142
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is the role of antigen presenting cells (APCs) in the immune response?
They signal other parts of the immune response by displaying antigen fragments.
p.101
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the structure of semilunar valves?
They consist of three crescent-shaped cusps.
p.150
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What do some haematopoietic stem cells differentiate into?
Erythrocyte colony forming units (ECFUs).
p.11
Respiratory Muscles and Ventilation
When are accessory respiratory muscles activated?
Only when respiration increases significantly.
p.31
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What role does the rib tubercle play?
It serves as an attachment point for ligaments and muscles.
p.88
Cardiovascular System Overview
How is the heart oriented in the thoracic cavity?
Tilted towards the left, with about two thirds of the heart lying to the left of the median plane.
p.26
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
How is scoliosis diagnosed?
Through physical examinations and imaging tests like X-rays.
p.42
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What are the right and left clavicular notches used for?
They are where the manubrium articulates with the clavicles.
p.88
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the apex of the heart?
The inferior end that tapers to a blunt point, located immediately above the diaphragm.
p.82
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is thrombocytopenia?
A platelet disorder characterized by having less than 100,000 platelets per microliter of blood.
p.27
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What are the true ribs?
Ribs 1 to 7 that attach directly to the sternum via costal cartilage.
p.12
Respiratory Muscles and Ventilation
What are the accessory muscles of respiration?
Sternocleidomastoid, scalene muscles, pectoralis minor, and others.
p.59
Blood Supply to the Lungs
How many protein chains does haemoglobin consist of?
Four protein chains called globins (two alpha and two beta proteins).
p.27
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the primary function of the rib cage?
To protect vital organs such as the heart, lungs, and liver.
p.75
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the normal platelet count in a healthy individual?
150,000 to 450,000 platelets per microliter of blood.
p.75
Cardiovascular System Overview
What can happen if platelet levels are too low?
It can lead to excessive bleeding and bruising.
p.74
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What happens to the platelets stored in the spleen?
They are released as needed.
p.3
Trachea Anatomy and Function
What is the location of the carina in relation to the vertebrae?
Between vertebra C6 and T5.
p.53
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is serum?
The remaining fluid after blood is clotted, which is plasma minus the clotting protein fibrinogen.
p.91
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the visceral layer of the pericardium?
It adheres to the heart surface and forms the outermost layer of the heart, known as the epicardium.
p.111
Cardiovascular System Overview
What does infarction refer to?
Obstruction of the blood supply to an organ or region of tissue.
p.142
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are antigen presenting cells (APCs)?
Macrophages, B lymphocytes, and reticular cells that display antigen fragments to other immune cells.
p.97
Cardiovascular System Overview
What portion of the heart does the left ventricle form?
The apex and infero-posterior portion.
p.68
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
Why are leukocytes easy to see under a microscope?
Due to their large nucleus.
p.97
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are trabeculae carneae?
Internal ridges in the ventricles that may help prevent the heart walls from sticking together during contraction.
p.42
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
Where can the suprasternal notch be palpated?
Between the clavicles (collarbones).
p.39
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the function of the vertebral arteries?
They supply blood to the brain.
p.26
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What are the treatment options for scoliosis?
Observation, bracing, or surgery, depending on severity.
p.54
Cardiovascular System Overview
How do red blood cells produce energy?
They use anaerobic respiration for the production of ATP.
p.119
Cardiovascular System Overview
What structure is located near the right AV valve?
The atrioventricular (AV) node.
p.88
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the function of the base of the heart?
It serves as the point of attachment for the great vessels.
p.21
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
What is the function of the pulmonary circuit?
To transport deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and return oxygenated blood back to the heart.
p.59
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is heme in relation to haemoglobin?
A non-protein component bound to each protein chain that contains an iron atom.
p.3
Trachea Anatomy and Function
What is the purpose of the tracheal cartilages?
To provide support to the trachea.
p.21
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
What do the left pulmonary veins do?
They carry oxygenated blood from the left lung to the heart.
p.1
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
Where do the internal nares lead?
They open into the nasopharynx.
p.23
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
How many coccygeal vertebrae are there?
4 very small coccygeal vertebrae.
p.132
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the role of perforating veins in the lower limb?
They connect superficial veins to deep veins, helping to regulate blood flow.
p.94
Cardiovascular System Overview
How does the heart contract due to the vortex of the heart?
With a twisting or wringing motion that enhances blood ejection.
p.97
Cardiovascular System Overview
Why is the wall of the left ventricle thicker than that of the right ventricle?
Because it bears the greatest workload, pumping blood through the entire body.
p.81
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is a consequence of sickle-shaped red blood cells?
They cannot pass freely through small blood vessels and can block circulation.
p.54
Cardiovascular System Overview
Why are red blood cells critical to survival?
Lack of RBCs can be fatal within a few minutes due to the lack of oxygen.
p.46
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the main components of the cardiovascular system?
The heart, blood vessels, and blood.
p.82
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What risk do patients with leukopenia face?
They are at risk of opportunistic infections.
p.76
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is haemostasis?
The process that prevents excessive bleeding after an injury or damage to blood vessels.
p.46
Cardiovascular System Overview
What role does the heart play in the cardiovascular system?
It acts as a pump to circulate blood throughout the body.
p.129
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the dorsal venous network?
A network of veins on the back of the hand that drains into the cephalic and basilic veins.
p.32
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the significance of the costovertebral joint?
It allows for the movement of the ribs during breathing.
p.54
Cardiovascular System Overview
What determines blood type in erythrocytes?
Glycolipids in the plasma (cell) membrane.
p.126
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the function of the interosseous arteries?
To supply blood to the deep structures of the forearm.
p.75
Cardiovascular System Overview
How do platelets contribute to hemostasis?
They aggregate at the site of a blood vessel injury to form a plug.
p.51
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the appearance of blood plasma?
A clear light-yellow colored fluid.
p.53
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What role do gamma globulins play in the blood?
They function as antibodies.
p.21
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
What is the ascending aorta's role in the circulatory system?
To carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body.
p.26
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is scoliosis?
A lateral curvature of the spine.
p.132
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the significance of the deep veins in the lower limb?
They accompany arteries and are crucial for returning blood to the heart.
p.80
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is infectious mononucleosis?
An infection of B lymphocytes caused by the Epstein Barr virus, transmitted through saliva.
p.26
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What are common symptoms of scoliosis?
Uneven shoulders, uneven waist, and one hip higher than the other.
p.54
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the two main functions of erythrocytes (red blood cells)?
Pick up oxygen from the lungs and transport it to tissues; collect carbon dioxide from tissues and transport it to the lungs.
p.82
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What is leukopenia?
A deficiency of white blood cells (WBC), which can be caused by infections like chicken pox and AIDS, heavy metal poisoning, or radiation exposure.
p.83
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the pericardial sac?
A double-walled sac that encloses the heart, providing protection and reducing friction.
p.81
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What are some severe complications of sickle cell disease?
Severe pain, kidney or heart failure, and stroke.
p.83
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the main functions of the pericardial sac?
To protect the heart and to anchor it within the thoracic cavity while allowing for movement.
p.54
Cardiovascular System Overview
Do erythrocytes have a nucleus?
No, erythrocytes do not have a nucleus or internal structures, including mitochondria.
p.98
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What are the names of the two interventricular sulci?
Anterior interventricular sulcus and posterior interventricular sulcus.
p.57
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What determines the amount of oxygen the blood can carry?
The quantity of red blood cells (RBCs).
p.4
Pleural Membranes and Cavities
What role does the pleura play in lung protection?
It helps compartmentalize the lungs and protects them from nearby infection.
p.10
Mechanics of Breathing
What changes the volume of the thoracic cavity?
Expansion or contraction of the diaphragm or rib cage.
p.12
Respiratory Muscles and Ventilation
Which muscle assists in elevating the rib cage during inhalation?
External intercostal muscles.
p.105
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the function of the aorta?
To distribute oxygenated blood to the body.
p.1
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What are the meatuses in the nasal cavity?
Constricted passageways that produce air turbulence.
p.30
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What runs through the costal groove of the rib?
Neurovascular structures.
p.21
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
What is exchanged in the alveolus?
Oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
p.3
Trachea Anatomy and Function
What structures are found at the root of the lungs?
Primary and secondary bronchi.
p.72
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What are the three functional classes of lymphocytes?
Natural killer cells, B cells, and T cells.
p.64
Cardiovascular System Overview
What can the release of hemoglobin during a transfusion reaction lead to?
Clogging of kidney tubules and potential renal failure.
p.57
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What are the main functions of haemoglobin?
Oxygen and carbon dioxide transport, and buffering of blood pH.
p.81
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What are the expected outcomes for patients with sickle cell disease?
Poor outcomes due to complications.
p.87
Cardiovascular System Overview
What do the superior and inferior vena cavae do?
They carry deoxygenated blood from the body back to the heart.
p.98
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What fills the sulci of the heart?
Fat and coronary blood vessels.
p.3
Trachea Anatomy and Function
What is the primary function of the trachea?
To serve as the windpipe, conducting air to and from the lungs.
p.105
Cardiovascular System Overview
How does blood return to the right atrium?
Through the superior and inferior vena cavae.
p.30
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the costovertebral joint?
The joint where the head of the rib interacts with the vertebral body.
p.61
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What can haematopoietic stem cells become?
Red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets.
p.20
Cardiovascular System Overview
What are the three major arterial branches from the aorta?
Brachiocephalic trunk, left common carotid artery, and left subclavian artery.
p.61
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What are the three types of granulocytes?
Neutrophils, Eosinophils, and Basophils.
p.41
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
What is the function of the alveolus?
Gas exchange (O2 and CO2).
p.20
Gastrointestinal System Overview
Which system includes the oesophagus?
Gastrointestinal (Digestive) system.
p.46
Cardiovascular System Overview
How does the cardiovascular system contribute to homeostasis?
By regulating blood flow and pressure, and distributing heat.
p.82
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What can cause thrombocytopenia?
Leukemia and radiation exposure.
p.51
Cardiovascular System Overview
What type of tissue is blood classified as?
A liquid connective tissue.
p.27
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What are floating ribs?
Ribs 11 and 12 that do not attach anywhere.
p.73
Lymphatic System and Immune Response
What chemicals do platelets secrete to attract immune cells?
Chemicals that attract neutrophils and monocytes.
p.63
Cardiovascular System Overview
What does A+ signify?
The person has the Rhesus protein on their RBCs.
p.18
Respiratory Muscles and Ventilation
What types of receptors provide input to the respiratory centers?
Irritant receptors and chemoreceptors.
p.61
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What are the two types of agranulocytes?
Lymphocytes and Monocytes.
p.74
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What happens to the remainder of the platelets not stored in the spleen?
They circulate freely in the blood.
p.30
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What does the head of the rib interact with?
The vertebral body of the vertebrae.
p.76
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the function of fibrin in the clotting process?
It adheres to the walls of blood vessels, allowing blood cells and platelets to stick to it.
p.21
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
What is the role of the right pulmonary arteries?
To carry deoxygenated blood to the right lung.
p.75
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the lifespan of platelets in the bloodstream?
Approximately 7 to 10 days.
p.53
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What is the function of albumin in blood plasma?
It is the most abundant protein and buffers blood pH.
p.51
Cardiovascular System Overview
What types of white blood cells are present in blood?
Five types of leukocytes.
p.53
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What electrolytes are present in blood plasma?
Salts of sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, and bicarbonate.
p.1
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
How does the nasal cavity help in trapping particles?
By trapping them in mucous.
p.45
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What feature do the manubrium and body of the sternum have for rib attachment?
Scalloped lateral margins.
p.74
Blood Supply to the Lungs
How is thrombopoiesis regulated?
It is carefully controlled to ensure appropriate levels of platelets in the blood.
p.51
Cardiovascular System Overview
Are platelets considered cells?
No, they are fragments of bone marrow cells.
p.51
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is the composition of blood?
Cells and an extracellular matrix (plasma).
p.21
Pulmonary Alveoli and Gas Exchange
What is the function of the left pulmonary arteries?
To carry deoxygenated blood to the left lung.
p.3
Trachea Anatomy and Function
What muscle is associated with the trachea?
Trachealis muscle (smooth muscle).
p.20
Cardiovascular System Overview
What is contained within the fibrous pericardium?
The heart and the roots of the great vessels.
p.53
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What are the three main types of proteins found in blood plasma?
Albumin, Globulins, and Fibrinogen.
p.1
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
What is the function of the soft palate?
It forms the back part of the roof of the mouth, aiding in swallowing and speech.
p.63
Cardiovascular System Overview
What do antibodies in our blood do?
They react against antigens that they recognize as foreign.
p.53
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What nutrients are found in blood plasma?
Glucose, amino acids, lipids, iron, and vitamins.
p.3
Trachea Anatomy and Function
What is the carina?
An internal ridge that separates the right and left bronchus.
p.53
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What does fibrinogen become and what is its role?
It becomes fibrin, a sticky protein that is a major component of blood clots.
p.53
Blood Supply to the Lungs
What are nitrogenous wastes found in blood plasma?
Urea, uric acid, creatinine, creatine, bilirubin, and ammonia.
