What is the Working Memory Model?
The Working Memory Model is a theory that proposes a system involving multiple components for temporary storage and manipulation of information.
p.15
Framing Effect in Decision Making
How are Program A and Program C related?
Program A is the same as Program C.
p.15
Framing Effect in Decision Making
What are the probabilities associated with Program D?
1/3 probability that nobody will die, and 2/3 probability that 600 people will die.
p.19
Reconstructive Memory and Leading Questions
What were the two different questions asked to the group about the getaway car?
One half was asked if they saw a broken headlight, and the other half was asked if they saw a yellow panel (which was actually blue).
p.15
Framing Effect in Decision Making
What does the decision-making scenario demonstrate about the framing effect?
It shows how framing effect influences decisions made.
p.10
Schema Theory and Memory Recall
What is repeated reproduction in Bartlett's experiment?
Each participant reads the story twice, then reproduces it after 15 minutes, and later at intervals of 20 hours, 8 days, 6 months, and 10 years.
p.10
Schema Theory and Memory Recall
What did Bartlett conclude about the recall of unfamiliar material?
Unfamiliar material changes when it is recalled, becoming shorter, simpler, and more stereotyped, likely due to the effect of schema on memory.
How does the Landry and Bartling study support the Working Memory Model?
It shows that articulatory suppression prevents rehearsal in the Phonological Loop due to overload, resulting in less accurate working memory.
p.14
Framing Effect in Decision Making
What hypothetical scenario were participants asked to respond to in Tversky and Kahneman's study?
Choosing how to respond to the outbreak of a virulent disease.
p.12
Dual Processing Model in Decision Making
How were participants assigned in the Englich and Mussweiler study?
Participants were randomly assigned to one of two experimental conditions.
What task did participants in the experimental group perform in the Landry and Bartling study?
They had to recite the numbers '1' and '2' while trying to memorize a list of 7 letters.
p.19
Strengths and Limitations of Cognitive Studies
What ethical concern was raised about the original research?
There was an attempt at deceiving the participants.
p.12
Dual Processing Model in Decision Making
What role did the pilot group play in the Englich and Mussweiler study?
The pilot group helped to establish reasonable anchors and demonstrated System 2 thinking.
p.10
Schema Theory and Memory Recall
What story did Bartlett use in his experiment and why?
'The War of the Ghosts', a North American Indian folk tale, because it was from another culture and unknown to the participants.
p.12
Dual Processing Model in Decision Making
Did experience impact the influence of anchoring bias in the courtroom?
No, experience did not impact the influence of anchoring bias.
p.10
Schema Theory and Memory Recall
Why can't the changes over time in Bartlett's study be compared fairly?
Because Bartlett did not always test the repeated reproduction participants after the same time intervals.
p.4
Cognitive Processing Research Methods
What did the participant receive in the study?
A different set of lists and a different sequence of delay conditions.
p.12
Dual Processing Model in Decision Making
What was the aim of the Englich and Mussweiler study?
To examine the role of experience in decision making in trial judges.
What was the aim of the Landry and Bartling experiment?
To investigate if articulatory suppression would influence recall of a written list of phonologically dissimilar letters in serial recall.
p.19
Influence of Emotion on Cognitive Processes
What did the witnesses report about their emotional state during the incident?
They reported not feeling afraid but did report having an 'adrenaline rush'.
p.14
Framing Effect in Decision Making
What was the aim of Tversky and Kahneman's study?
To test the influence of positive and negative frames on decision making.
p.9
Schema Theory and Memory Recall
What does schema theory suggest about our previous understanding in a cultural setting?
Schema theory suggests that our previous understanding in a cultural setting influences our memory.
p.15
Framing Effect in Decision Making
How are Program B and Program D related?
Program B is the same as Program D.
p.12
Dual Processing Model in Decision Making
What was the main finding regarding the sentences given by participants?
Sentences were higher when participants evaluated the high demand (M=35.75) than the low demand (M=28.00).
p.16
Reconstructive Memory and Leading Questions
What was the aim of Palmer's study?
To investigate whether the use of leading questions would affect the estimation of speed.
p.14
Framing Effect in Decision Making
What type of sample did Tversky and Kahneman use in their study?
A self-selected (volunteer) sample of 307 US undergraduate students.
p.12
Dual Processing Model in Decision Making
What were some limitations of the Englich and Mussweiler study?
Small sample size, participant variability as a confounding variable, and limited courtroom experience of the sample.
p.8
Schema Theory and Memory Recall
What was the aim of Brewer and Treyens' study?
To investigate the role of schema in the encoding and retrieval of episodic memory.
p.16
Strengths and Limitations of Cognitive Studies
Why might the findings of Palmer's study be difficult to generalize?
The study only used students, who may differ from people of other ages and situations.
p.8
Schema Theory and Memory Recall
What did participants do in the verbal recognition condition?
They were read a list of objects and asked whether they thought the object was in the room or not.
p.8
Schema Theory and Memory Recall
What is an example of a reconstruction error found in Brewer and Treyens' study?
Nine participants remembered there were books when there were no books.
p.17
Reconstructive Memory and Leading Questions
What did Loftus and Palmer conclude about post-event information?
Post-event information does affect memory recall.
p.20
Influence of Emotion on Cognitive Processes
What methods are commonly used in research on cognitive processing in a technological world?
Longitudinal studies, experimental designs, and observational studies.
p.18
Ecological Validity in Psychological Research
Why does Yuille and Cutshall's study have strong ecological validity?
Because it was a field study with archival evidence to confirm the accuracy of the memories.
p.3
Multi-Store Model of Memory
What does the study by Glanzer and Cunitz support about memory?
The idea of multiple stores of memory (STM and LTM).
p.13
Cognitive Processing Research Methods
Who are considered less experienced in the context of the judiciary?
Young, less experienced judges.
p.15
Framing Effect in Decision Making
What was the sample population in the study?
Western university students.
p.10
Schema Theory and Memory Recall
What were the common patterns of errors found in Bartlett's study?
Form (order of events), details (names and numbers were lost), simplification (details left out or made more familiar), and addition (inaccurate details included).
p.10
Schema Theory and Memory Recall
What was a limitation of Bartlett's study regarding the material used?
By choosing unfamiliar material, Bartlett could not be sure that the changes he found would happen with familiar information.
p.16
Reconstructive Memory and Leading Questions
How many groups were the participants split into in Palmer's study?
5 groups, with 9 participants in each group.
p.16
Reconstructive Memory and Leading Questions
What concept explains the higher estimation of speed when the verb 'smashed' was used?
Actual distortion of memory recall.
p.17
Ecological Validity in Psychological Research
Why can't the results of some cognitive studies be generalized to all eyewitnesses?
Because not everyone who witnesses an event in real life would be a student.
p.20
Influence of Emotion on Cognitive Processes
What methods are commonly used in emotion and cognition research?
Experimental studies, surveys, and neuroimaging techniques.
p.3
Multi-Store Model of Memory
What was the aim of Glanzer and Cunitz's laboratory experiment?
To investigate the recency effect in free recall.
p.20
Influence of Emotion on Cognitive Processes
What are some limitations of emotion and cognition research?
Complexity of isolating variables, potential biases in self-reported data, and challenges in generalizing findings across different populations.
p.8
Ecological Validity in Psychological Research
What is a strength of Brewer and Treyens' study in terms of ecological validity?
The study was conducted in a natural office setting.
p.17
Ecological Validity in Psychological Research
What is a limitation of laboratory experiments in cognitive research?
They create an artificial setting, leading to low ecological validity.
p.3
Multi-Store Model of Memory
How did delays affect the primacy effect in the experiment?
The primacy effect was more or less unaffected by 10-second delays, and there was still a clear primacy effect with a 30-second delay.
p.10
Schema Theory and Memory Recall
What was the aim of Bartlett's (1932) study?
To investigate how information changes with each reproduction and to find out why the information changes.
p.12
Dual Processing Model in Decision Making
What materials were used in the Englich and Mussweiler study?
The same case materials and central questionnaire as in Experiment 1.
p.12
Dual Processing Model in Decision Making
What type of experiment was conducted by Englich and Mussweiler?
A true experiment, allowing researchers to infer a cause and effect relationship.
p.16
Reconstructive Memory and Leading Questions
What was the critical question in Palmer's study?
"About how fast were the cars going when they...into each other?"
p.14
Framing Effect in Decision Making
What were the choices given to participants in the positive frame condition?
Program A: 200 people will be saved. Program B: 1/3 probability that 600 people will be saved, and 2/3 probability that no people will be saved.
p.14
Strengths and Limitations of Cognitive Studies
What are some strengths of Tversky and Kahneman's study?
The experiment is highly controlled, has high internal validity, is highly standardized, and is easily replicable.
p.8
Schema Theory and Memory Recall
What did participants have to do in the recall condition?
Write down as many objects as they could remember from the office and rate their certainty about the presence of 131 objects listed in a booklet.
p.20
Influence of Emotion on Cognitive Processes
What are typical results found in emotion and cognition research?
Emotions can enhance or impair cognitive processes such as memory, attention, and decision-making.
p.20
Influence of Emotion on Cognitive Processes
What are some strengths of emotion and cognition research?
Provides insights into the interaction between emotional and cognitive processes, and has practical applications in fields like education and therapy.
p.18
Reconstructive Memory and Leading Questions
What did Yuille and Cutshall find about the effect of leading questions on eyewitness memory?
Eyewitnesses did not make errors as a result of the leading questions.
p.17
Strengths and Limitations of Cognitive Studies
What is a strength of laboratory experiments in cognitive research?
High level of control and fair testing as everybody was asked the same questions.
p.3
Multi-Store Model of Memory
What was the effect of a 30-second delay on the recency effect?
A 30-second delay totally eliminated the recency effect.
p.10
Schema Theory and Memory Recall
What is serial reproduction in Bartlett's experiment?
The first participant reads the story twice and then tells it to a second participant after 15-30 minutes, who then tells it to the next person in a chain of participants.
p.19
Reconstructive Memory and Leading Questions
How does this research contradict the study by Loftus & Palmer (1974)?
It suggests that the lack of emotional response to the video in Loftus & Palmer's study played a key role in the influence of leading questions.
p.5
Strengths and Limitations of Cognitive Studies
What are some strengths of the Landry and Bartling study?
Well-controlled study, high level of internal validity, cause and effect relationship can be determined, supports the Working Memory Model, replicable and reliable.
p.14
Framing Effect in Decision Making
How was the information framed for some participants in Tversky and Kahneman's study?
Positively for some participants and negatively for others.
p.16
Strengths and Limitations of Cognitive Studies
How did Loftus and Palmer control variables in their study?
By controlling the age of participants, using the same video, the location, and the questions asked.
p.17
Reconstructive Memory and Leading Questions
What was the aim of Loftus and Palmer's second study?
To investigate if participants who had a high-speed estimate in the first part of an experiment would say that they had seen broken glass.
p.8
Strengths and Limitations of Cognitive Studies
What is a strength of Brewer and Treyens' study in terms of internal validity?
Participants were not aware the experiment had begun, reducing demand characteristics.
p.3
Multi-Store Model of Memory
What was the task for participants when a number appeared after the last word in each list?
The participant was to start counting out loud from that number until the experimenter said 'write.'
p.20
Influence of Emotion on Cognitive Processes
What conclusions are often drawn from research on cognitive processing in a technological world?
The impact of digital technologies on cognition is complex and multifaceted, requiring further investigation to fully understand.
p.3
Strengths and Limitations of Cognitive Studies
What were some limitations of Glanzer and Cunitz's experiment?
Participants were all male, which may differ in brain capacity/memorization to females, and the study lacks ecological validity.
p.12
Dual Processing Model in Decision Making
What were the two experimental conditions in the Englich and Mussweiler study?
Participants evaluated either a high demand (34 months) or a low demand (12 months) sentence.
p.19
Strengths and Limitations of Cognitive Studies
Why is the quantification of qualitative responses from participants problematic?
It may be open to researcher bias.
p.14
Framing Effect in Decision Making
What conclusion can be drawn from Tversky and Kahneman's study regarding the framing effect?
Framing effect influences decision making; people prefer certain outcomes when information is framed positively and avoid certain losses when information is framed negatively.
p.8
Schema Theory and Memory Recall
What is the basic assumption of schema theory?
Individuals' prior experiences will influence how they remember new information.
p.8
Schema Theory and Memory Recall
What were the three conditions participants were allocated to in Brewer and Treyens' study?
Recall condition, drawing condition, and verbal recognition condition.
p.17
Reconstructive Memory and Leading Questions
What did the participants in Loftus and Palmer's study do after watching the car crash clip?
They answered a series of questions about the car crash.
p.18
Reconstructive Memory and Leading Questions
What did Yuille and Cutshall conclude about the reliability of eyewitnesses compared to lab studies?
Those directly involved in the event remembered more than in lab studies.
p.8
Strengths and Limitations of Cognitive Studies
What is a limitation of Brewer and Treyens' study in terms of population validity?
The sample was not representative as it only included psychology students.
p.20
Influence of Emotion on Cognitive Processes
What are some limitations of research on cognitive processing in a technological world?
Rapidly changing technology landscape, difficulty in establishing causality, and potential ethical concerns.
p.5
Strengths and Limitations of Cognitive Studies
What are some limitations of the Landry and Bartling study?
Artificial conditions not reflective of real-world situations, lacks ecological validity, small sample size reduces generalizability of results.
p.16
Strengths and Limitations of Cognitive Studies
What are demand characteristics in the context of Palmer's study?
Factors that allow for precise control of variables, ensuring the IV affects the DV and nothing else.
p.16
Ecological Validity in Psychological Research
Why is the ecological validity of Palmer's study considered low?
Because the study was artificial and not typical of a real-life situation.
p.8
Schema Theory and Memory Recall
What task were participants given in the drawing condition?
They were given an outline of the room and asked to draw the objects they could remember.
p.18
Reconstructive Memory and Leading Questions
What was the main finding of Yuille and Cutshall's study on eyewitness memory?
Eyewitnesses were very reliable and recalled a large amount of accurate detail.
p.8
Schema Theory and Memory Recall
How did Brewer and Treyens' study demonstrate the influence of schemas on memory recall?
Participants remembered more objects congruent with their office schema than objects not typically found in an office.
p.20
Influence of Emotion on Cognitive Processes
What are typical results found in research on cognitive processing in a technological world?
Digital technologies can both enhance and impair cognitive functions such as attention, memory, and problem-solving.
p.18
Influence of Emotion on Cognitive Processes
What is a possible explanation for the high accuracy of eyewitness memory in Yuille and Cutshall's study?
It could be a case of flashbulb memory due to the threat to the eyewitnesses' safety.
p.16
Reconstructive Memory and Leading Questions
What were the different verbs used in the critical question of Palmer's study?
Smashed, hit, collided, bumped, or contacted.
p.14
Dual Processing Model in Decision Making
What type of thinking did participants use in Tversky and Kahneman's study?
System 1 thinking (intuitive thinking).
p.14
Strengths and Limitations of Cognitive Studies
What are some limitations of Tversky and Kahneman's study?
The study has low mundane realism and low ecological validity because the situation is hypothetical and lacks real-life emotional context.
p.18
Reconstructive Memory and Leading Questions
What was the critical question asked to participants a week after the car crash experiment?
Did you see any broken glass?
p.20
Influence of Emotion on Cognitive Processes
What conclusions are often drawn from emotion and cognition research?
Emotions play a significant role in shaping cognitive processes and can influence behavior and decision-making.
p.18
Reconstructive Memory and Leading Questions
What was the nature of the crime scene in Yuille and Cutshall's study?
A thief entered a gun shop, tied up the owner, stole money and guns, and then shot the owner twice before being killed by the police.
p.17
Reconstructive Memory and Leading Questions
What are the two types of information that Loftus and Palmer believed enter our memory?
1) Information at the time of the event, 2) Post-event information.
p.3
Multi-Store Model of Memory
How did a 10-second delay affect the recency effect in Glanzer and Cunitz's experiment?
A 10-second delay reduced the recency effect.
p.20
Influence of Emotion on Cognitive Processes
What are some strengths of research on cognitive processing in a technological world?
Addresses contemporary issues, provides insights into the effects of technology on cognition, and has implications for education and policy-making.
p.17
Cognitive Processing Research Methods
What does the collection of quantitative data allow in cognitive studies?
It allows comparisons to be made across groups, such as which verb attained the highest/lowest speed estimates.
p.20
Influence of Emotion on Cognitive Processes
What is the aim of research on emotion and cognition?
To investigate how emotions influence cognitive processes.
p.20
Influence of Emotion on Cognitive Processes
What is the aim of research on cognitive processing in a technological world?
To explore how modern digital technologies affect cognitive processes.
p.8
Strengths and Limitations of Cognitive Studies
What is a limitation of Brewer and Treyens' study in terms of repeatability?
The ethical concern of deception may limit the study's repeatability.
p.17
Strengths and Limitations of Cognitive Studies
What are demand characteristics in cognitive research?
Participants looking for clues on how to behave.
p.8
Schema Theory and Memory Recall
What were participants told when they were asked to wait in the experimenter's office?
They were told to wait for the experimenter and did not realize the study had already begun.
p.17
Reconstructive Memory and Leading Questions
How many participants were in each group in Loftus and Palmer's study?
There were 50 participants in each group.
p.8
Schema Theory and Memory Recall
What type of items were participants more likely to remember in the writing and drawing conditions?
Items that were congruent with their schema of an office, such as a desk and chair.
p.3
Multi-Store Model of Memory
What happened when a hashtag symbol appeared after the last word in each list?
The experimenter said 'write,' and the participant immediately started writing all the words he/she could recall.
p.18
Strengths and Limitations of Cognitive Studies
What are some limitations of Yuille and Cutshall's study?
The study is not replicable, not generalisable, and there was no control of variables.
