p.9
Nitrogenous Waste Excretion
Which animals primarily excrete ammonia?
Most aquatic animals, including most bony fishes.
p.2
Circulatory Systems and Blood Components
What is blood classified as?
A connective tissue consisting of several cell types suspended in plasma.
p.8
Water and Electrolyte Balance
How do animals gain water?
1) By drinking 2) By eating 3) By absorbing it via osmosis 4) As a by-product of cellular respiration.
p.3
Circulatory Systems and Blood Components
What is the primary function of platelets in the blood?
To minimize blood loss from ruptured blood vessels by assisting in the formation of clots.
p.3
Circulatory Systems and Blood Components
What role do white blood cells play in the body?
They are part of the immune system and fight infections.
p.8
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What is the function of Na+/K+-ATPase in salt excretion in sharks?
It pumps Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the cell, creating an electrochemical gradient.
p.8
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What is the role of cotransporters in cellular transport?
They use energy released by moving another substance against the gradient to transport ions.
p.10
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What effect does dehydration have on hormone release?
It leads to the release of antiduretic hormone (ADH), promoting water reabsorption.
p.12
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What does maximum urine concentration correlate with?
The relative thickness of the medulla.
p.10
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What is the role of the Loop of Henle?
It maintains an osmotic gradient.
p.10
Water and Electrolyte Balance
How does active transport in the ascending limb affect osmolarity?
It drives the osmolarity gradient in the medulla.
p.10
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What occurs in the descending limb of the Loop of Henle?
Water moves out following the osmolarity gradient in the medulla.
p.7
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What is osmoregulation?
The process of maintaining water balance.
p.6
Responses to High Altitude
What is freediving?
A method of underwater diving that does not require a breathing apparatus; divers hold their breath.
p.8
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What distinguishes osmoregulators from osmoregulators?
Osmoregulators maintain a tissue osmolarity different from the environment, while osmoconformers maintain a similar osmolarity.
p.7
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What is ion regulation?
The process of maintaining ion balance.
p.6
Challenges and Adaptations of Desert Organisms
What are the challenges faced during diving?
Pressure changes, cardiovascular challenges, N2 narcosis, and oxygen limitations.
p.6
Responses to High Altitude
How can the Aerobic Dive Limit (cADL) be extended?
By increasing total body oxygen storage or increasing metabolic demand.
p.9
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What is the role of co-transporters in ion movement?
Movement of one ion is powered by diffusion, with at least one ion moving from high to low concentration.
p.2
Oxygen Dissociation and Hemoglobin Function
How much more oxygen is present in water compared to blood flow in fish gills?
Always 10% greater amount of oxygen.
p.2
Respiratory Structures and Mechanisms
What is co-current flow?
A flow pattern where two fluids move in the same direction, making gas exchange difficult.
p.2
Respiratory Structures and Mechanisms
What are the main components of the human lungs?
Trachea, Lung, Bronchi, Bronchioles, and Alveoli.
p.1
Respiratory Structures and Mechanisms
What is Fick’s Law of Diffusion?
Fick’s Law states that diffusion rate is proportional to the diffusion constant, area for gas exchange, and the difference in partial pressure, divided by the distance.
p.12
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What can a large medulla accommodate?
A long Loop of Henle and a stronger osmolarity gradient.
p.7
Oxygen's Role in Animal Life
What is a characteristic of marine mammals regarding blood values?
They tend to have increased values except for lung size.
p.8
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What must be equal to maintain water balance in animals?
Gains and losses of water.
p.8
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What is passive transport?
Movement along an electrochemical gradient without energy use, including direct diffusion and facilitated diffusion.
p.8
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What is active transport?
Movement against an electrochemical gradient that uses energy (ATP).
p.3
Oxygen's Role in Animal Life
What is the main function of red blood cells (RBCs)?
To transport oxygen from the lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs.
p.7
Water and Electrolyte Balance
How does water move in relation to osmolarity?
From areas of low osmolarity to areas of high osmolarity.
p.2
Respiratory Structures and Mechanisms
What do large aquatic and terrestrial organisms need for respiration?
Alternative strategies beyond skin respiration.
p.1
Homeostasis and Conformity
What is a pro and con of homeostatic regulation?
Pro: expands the environmental space for organisms; Con: energetically expensive.
p.1
Homeostasis and Conformity
What is a pro and con of conformity?
Pro: energetically cheap; Con: highly dependent on external environmental conditions.
p.3
Homeostasis and Conformity
How does the body maintain homeostatic control of breathing?
Receptors in the carotid body sample blood pH, and the brainstem integrates this information to adjust breathing via the diaphragm.
p.3
Oxygen Dissociation and Hemoglobin Function
What is the effect of cooperative binding in hemoglobin?
It results in a large difference in the amount of O2 delivered to resting versus exercising tissues.
p.9
Water and Electrolyte Balance
How do Marine Iguanas excrete salt?
By blowing out very concentrated amounts of salt.
p.2
Respiratory Structures and Mechanisms
What is the difference between bidirectional and unidirectional air flow?
Bidirectional is like tidal breathing; unidirectional is like a race track.
p.9
Nitrogenous Waste Excretion
Which animals excrete urea?
Mammals, most amphibians, sharks, and some bony fishes.
p.4
Circulatory Systems and Blood Components
What characterizes open circulatory systems?
They have a heart to pump hemolymph but limited piping.
p.7
Oxygen Dissociation and Hemoglobin Function
What factors influence O2 bound to hemoglobin in blood?
Blood volume, hematocrit, hemoglobin concentration [Hb], and hemoglobin O2 affinity.
p.8
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What are the ways animals lose water?
1) Urine and feces 2) Evaporation 3) Osmotic loss.
p.7
Respiratory Structures and Mechanisms
What adaptations do deep diving marine mammals have in their respiratory system?
Flexible chest walls that allow for collapse.
p.7
Responses to High Altitude
What is the 'Dive Reflex'?
A physiological response that includes apnea, bradycardia, and regional vasoconstriction.
p.7
Responses to High Altitude
What occurs during apnea in the Dive Reflex?
The absence of breathing.
p.2
Respiratory Structures and Mechanisms
Why is respiration through the skin only viable for small organisms?
Because it is effective only in wet environments.
p.10
Water and Electrolyte Balance
How does alcohol affect ADH secretion?
It suppresses ADH secretion from the pituitary.
p.9
Water and Electrolyte Balance
How do freshwater fish gain water?
Primarily through their gills.
p.2
Oxygen's Role in Animal Life
What is countercurrent flow in fish gills?
When water and blood flow in opposite directions to maximize oxygen transfer.
p.11
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What is the primary function of the ascending limb in the nephron?
To reabsorb water and solutes, while urea does not exit.
p.11
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What is the permeability of the descending limb of the nephron?
Highly permeable to water but impermeable to solutes.
p.11
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What drives the osmolarity gradient in the medulla?
Active transport in the upper part of the ascending limb.
p.5
Oxygen's Role in Animal Life
What is a key characteristic of capillaries?
They are leaky to liquids and small molecules like glucose, proteins, and hormones.
p.4
Circulatory Systems and Blood Components
How do some animals like jellyfish and corals circulate nutrients?
They circulate water through themselves.
p.5
Circulatory Systems and Blood Components
What happens to blood pressure as blood moves away from the heart?
Blood pressure goes down.
p.4
Circulatory Systems and Blood Components
What is the process of systemic circulation?
Blood returns to the left atrium from the lungs, enters the left ventricle, and is pumped to the body.
p.11
Challenges and Adaptations of Desert Organisms
Why is concentrating urine essential for desert mammals?
For water conservation and selective removal of salts.
p.5
Responses to High Altitude
How do lowlanders adapt to high elevation?
They increase red blood cell counts.
p.10
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What happens during the filtration process in the renal corpuscle?
Fluid and small solutes are pushed through pores into Bowman’s capsule, while large molecules and cells remain in the bloodstream.
p.6
Responses to High Altitude
What is the Aerobic Dive Limit (ADL)?
The maximum breath-hold possible without an increase in blood lactate concentration during or after the dive.
p.6
Cellular Respiration Pathways
What happens to lactic acid accumulation during a dive?
It requires more time at the surface to recover.
p.6
Cellular Respiration Pathways
What are the two pathways to remove lactate?
1. Convert to pyruvate for aerobic metabolism (requires O2). 2. Convert to pyruvate and back to glucose for storage (requires ATP).
p.1
Homeostasis and Conformity
What is homeostasis?
Maintaining a stable internal environment in the face of internal and external challenges.
p.1
Homeostasis and Conformity
How do ectotherms maintain their body temperature?
Through conformity, which means their internal environment approaches external conditions.
p.2
Respiratory Structures and Mechanisms
What are gills?
Projections of the respiratory surface that work in water.
p.3
Oxygen Dissociation and Hemoglobin Function
What determines the rate of oxygen unloading from hemoglobin?
The partial pressure of oxygen in the tissue.
p.3
Oxygen Dissociation and Hemoglobin Function
What is the Bohr Effect?
The affinity for O2 decreases as pH decreases.
p.3
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What happens to CO2 and H2O in the blood?
They are converted to bicarbonate (HCO3^-) and hydrogen ions (H+) using the enzyme carbonic anhydrase.
p.9
Water and Electrolyte Balance
Where are nasal salt glands located in Albatross?
Right above the nostrils/air ducts.
p.2
Respiratory Structures and Mechanisms
What is negative pressure ventilation?
Lungs expand and contract in response to pressure changes in the chest cavity.
p.1
Respiratory Structures and Mechanisms
What factors affect the diffusion constant (K) in Fick's Law?
The solubility of gas and temperature.
p.11
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What happens to water in the descending limb of the nephron?
Water moves out following the osmolarity gradient in the medulla.
p.11
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What hormonal control affects the properties of the distal tubule?
The hydration status of the individual.
p.11
Challenges and Adaptations of Desert Organisms
What are some challenges faced by desert organisms?
Thermoregulation, osmoregulation, and ion regulation.
p.4
Circulatory Systems and Blood Components
What is the process of pulmonary circulation?
Blood enters the right atrium, moves to the right ventricle, and is pumped to the lungs.
p.4
Circulatory Systems and Blood Components
What is the structure of arteries?
High pressure, low volume, stretchy large vessels, and smaller arteries use smooth muscle to control blood flow.
p.6
Responses to High Altitude
What physiological response occurs when a person’s face is submerged in water?
The mammalian dive reflex, which redirects blood to vital organs and slows the heart rate.
p.1
Homeostasis and Conformity
What is the role of enzymes in homeostasis?
Enzymes have an optimal range of values over which they perform best.
p.10
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What is the function of Bowman’s capsule?
To allow solutes and water to pass out of the blood into the nephron.
p.2
Respiratory Structures and Mechanisms
What happens to fish gills when exposed to air?
They clump together and become ineffective.
p.6
Responses to High Altitude
What is the effect of peripheral vasoconstriction during a dive?
It restricts blood flow to the limbs to conserve oxygen.
p.1
Oxygen's Role in Animal Life
What is the importance of O2 for animal life?
O2 is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain.
p.1
Oxygen's Role in Animal Life
What are the steps involved in respiration?
Ventilation → Diffusion at respiratory surface → Circulation → Diffusion at tissues → Cellular respiration.
p.1
Oxygen's Role in Animal Life
How does the percentage of O2 in air compare to water?
Air contains a constant 21% O2, while water generally has much less O2.
p.9
Nitrogenous Waste Excretion
What is the sequence of nitrogenous waste formation from proteins?
Proteins → Amino acids → NH2 (Amino groups) → Ammonia → Urea → Uric acid.
p.2
Respiratory Structures and Mechanisms
Why is the avian lung more efficient than the mammalian lung?
Due to one-way air flow, which affects partial pressures.
p.4
Circulatory Systems and Blood Components
What must the cardiovascular system supply to muscles during exercise?
Large amounts of oxygen and fuel, and remove waste.
p.9
Nitrogenous Waste Excretion
Which nitrogenous waste requires more water for excretion?
Ammonia requires more water than urea.
p.11
Challenges and Adaptations of Desert Organisms
What behavioral changes do desert organisms exhibit?
Nocturnal activity and dietary shifts to consume water-rich insects.
p.11
Challenges and Adaptations of Desert Organisms
How do desert mammals conserve water?
By concentrating their urine and reducing water loss from evaporation.
p.5
Oxygen Dissociation and Hemoglobin Function
What is the significance of hemoglobin (Hb) in bar-headed geese?
They have Hb with high O2 affinity (low P50).
p.5
Responses to High Altitude
What adaptation is not seen in Tibetan or Ethiopian populations at high altitudes?
Increased red blood cell counts.
p.4
Oxygen Dissociation and Hemoglobin Function
What happens to the O2 hemoglobin dissociation curve during athletic training?
It shifts to the right, unloading more oxygen into the tissues.
p.11
Water and Electrolyte Balance
What does antidiuretic hormone (ADH) do when an individual is dehydrated?
Leads to the reabsorption of water.
p.4
Circulatory Systems and Blood Components
What defines closed circulatory systems?
They have a heart and vessels to control blood flow.
p.5
Responses to High Altitude
How do bar-headed geese achieve high pulmonary O2 diffusion?
Due to the relatively large surface area of their lungs.
p.4
Circulatory Systems and Blood Components
What is the structure of capillaries?
One RBC in diameter and one cell layer thick.
p.5
Responses to High Altitude
What adaptation do bar-headed geese have for high altitude?
A unidirectional respiratory system with countercurrent gas exchange.
p.5
Responses to High Altitude
What is a unique feature of the hearts of bar-headed geese?
They have large hearts relative to body size, supporting larger cardiac output.
p.5
Responses to High Altitude
What physiological response do humans exhibit at high altitudes?
Hyperventilation (increased breathing rate).
p.5
Responses to High Altitude
What alteration do lowlanders make to their blood at high altitudes?
They alter molecules that interact with hemoglobin to lower its affinity for oxygen.
