p.31
Nervous System Regulation
How is the short-term strength of the response controlled in the nervous system?
By the frequency of impulses (action potentials) of nerve cells.
p.19
Hormonal Regulation and Endocrine System
What do pancreatic beta cells sense in the extracellular fluid (ECF)?
Increased glucose concentration.
p.21
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
How does the body maintain body temperature at 37°C?
The body maintains temperature at 37°C through a balance of heat production and heat loss mechanisms, regulated by the hypothalamus in the brain.
p.5
Organ Systems and Interstitial Fluid Regulation
What is the primary function of our organ systems?
To optimize the interstitial fluid.
p.4
Multi-Cellular Organism Environment
Are cells in a multi-cellular organism directly exposed to the environment?
No, essentially no cell is directly exposed to the environment.
p.21
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What is homeostasis?
Homeostasis is the process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions.
p.18
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
Why does the actual temperature of the room not hold exactly at the set point?
Because the temperature fluctuates around the set point due to the furnace cycling on and off.
p.16
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What is the role of effectors in maintaining homeostasis?
Effectors bring about the desired change to maintain homeostasis.
p.9
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What is the role of the urinary system?
To excrete urea and regulate water and salt balance.
p.28
Nervous System Regulation
What type of responses would you want to regulate with the nervous system and why?
Immediate and localized responses, because the nervous system provides fast and targeted signals.
p.9
Organ Systems and Interstitial Fluid Regulation
What is the role of the circulatory system in homeostasis?
To transport O2, CO2, nutrients, and heat.
p.8
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What are some of the parameters that the interstitial fluid must maintain?
O2, CO2, urea, water, salts, H+, nutrients, glucose, amino acids, and heat.
p.14
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What substances are regulated by the urinary system?
Urea, water, salts, and H+.
p.25
Cellular Communication and Integration
What are some examples of integrating centers in the body?
The brain and the pancreas.
What are the primary gases involved in the respiratory system?
O2 (oxygen) and CO2 (carbon dioxide).
p.1
Single-Cell Organism Adaptation
How does temperature affect single-cell organisms?
Temperature changes can impact their metabolic processes and overall survival.
p.7
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What are the two main components of extracellular fluid (ECF)?
Interstitial fluid and plasma.
p.7
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What is the primary function of the extracellular fluid (ECF)?
To transport nutrients, oxygen, and waste products to and from cells.
p.26
Hormonal Regulation and Endocrine System
How do hormones travel through the body?
In the circulatory system.
p.24
Cellular Communication and Integration
What types of signals are involved in cellular communication for homeostatic regulation?
Chemical and electrical signals.
p.6
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
How is the movement of substances between intracellular fluid and interstitial fluid regulated?
The movement of substances between the intracellular fluid and the interstitial fluid is tightly regulated.
p.4
Organ Systems and Interstitial Fluid Regulation
What role do multiple organ systems play in a multi-cellular organism?
They work together to keep the cell’s environment constant and optimal.
p.28
Nervous System Regulation
What is the size of the target in nervous regulation?
Very small, limited to a number of cells innervated.
p.19
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
What effect does falling ECF glucose have on insulin secretion?
It reduces insulin secretion.
p.28
Hormonal Regulation and Endocrine System
What type of responses would you want to regulate with hormones and why?
Long-term and widespread responses, because hormones can affect many cells and have prolonged effects.
p.1
Single-Cell Organism Adaptation
What are some environmental factors that a single-cell organism is directly exposed to?
Food source, temperature, pH, oxygen, and toxins.
p.17
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
What role does the thermostat play in a negative feedback system for room temperature?
The thermostat acts as the sensor (receptor) and integrator.
p.26
Hormonal Regulation and Endocrine System
Do all cells respond to hormones?
No, only cells with specific receptors will respond to hormones.
p.13
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What is the role of the respiratory system in homeostasis?
To exchange oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) with the environment.
p.31
Hormonal Regulation and Endocrine System
How is the short-term strength of the response controlled in the endocrine system?
By the concentration of the circulating (and available) hormone.
p.18
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
What happens when the room temperature fluctuates around the set point?
The furnace turns on and off to maintain the temperature close to the set point.
p.24
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What does homeostatic regulation involve?
Multiple organs and requires communication between cells, tissues, and organs.
p.24
Cellular Communication and Integration
How are signals sent and received in the body for homeostatic regulation?
Through cellular communication involving chemical and electrical signals.
p.16
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What is the role of receptors in maintaining homeostasis?
Receptors monitor homeostatic parameters such as glucose, heat, and oxygen.
p.16
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What is the function of the integrating center in homeostasis?
The integrating center analyzes information from receptors and brings about the proper response.
p.6
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What is the relationship between the compositions of interstitial fluid and plasma?
There is rapid equilibration of most substances between the interstitial fluid and the plasma, making their compositions very similar.
p.16
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
How is the activity of effectors turned off once homeostasis is restored?
Through negative feedback mechanisms.
p.14
Organ Systems and Interstitial Fluid Regulation
Which system is responsible for nutrient availability?
The digestive and circulatory systems.
p.14
Organ Systems and Interstitial Fluid Regulation
What are the primary functions of the circulatory system?
Transporting glucose, amino acids, water, salts, and heat.
p.25
Cellular Communication and Integration
How does the integrator/effector communicate with the billions of cells in the body?
Through nerve signals, hormones, and integrating centers.
p.25
Cellular Communication and Integration
What are the main systems involved in communication within the body?
The endocrine system, the nervous system, and the neuro-endocrine system.
p.28
Nervous System Regulation
How does information travel in nervous regulation?
By nerve cells to target organs such as muscles and glands.
p.21
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
How does the body generate heat to maintain body temperature?
The body generates heat through metabolic processes, muscle activity (shivering), and hormonal regulation.
p.28
Nervous System Regulation
How fast is the response in nervous regulation?
Very fast, occurring in fractions of seconds.
p.21
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What mechanisms does the body use to stop heat loss?
The body stops heat loss by constricting blood vessels (vasoconstriction), reducing sweat production, and increasing insulation through fat and clothing.
p.22
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
What happens when the body temperature is restored to 37°C?
Negative feedback systems stop signaling.
p.1
Single-Cell Organism Adaptation
Why is physiology important for single-cell organisms?
Physiology is what keeps them alive by helping them adapt to changing environmental conditions.
p.9
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What are the primary components regulated in the extracellular fluid (ECF)?
O2 and CO2 concentrations.
p.10
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
Which systems are involved in heat generation and loss?
Heat generation: all cells, especially skeletal muscles and brown fat. Heat loss: circulatory system, respiratory system, and sweating.
p.12
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What is the role of the urinary system in homeostasis?
Regulating water, salts, and excreting urea.
p.7
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What is the role of plasma in the extracellular fluid (ECF)?
To transport blood cells, nutrients, and waste products throughout the body.
p.17
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What are some parameters maintained around homeostatic set points?
Temperature, O2 levels, glucose concentration.
p.26
Hormonal Regulation and Endocrine System
What kind of changes can hormones cause?
Hormones can cause long-term changes, such as those caused by sex steroids.
p.13
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What role does the digestive system play in homeostasis?
It provides nutrients to the body.
p.19
Hormonal Regulation and Endocrine System
Which tissues respond to insulin to take up glucose from the ECF?
Liver, fat (adipose), and skeletal muscle.
p.15
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
Which systems are involved in the regulation of pH in the body?
Respiratory, urinary, and circulatory systems.
p.15
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What is the chemical reaction involving HCO3-, H+, and H2CO3 in the regulation of pH?
HCO3- + H+ ↔ H2CO3 ↔ CO2 + H2O.
p.27
Hormonal Regulation and Endocrine System
At what concentrations do hormones typically work?
Hormones work at very low concentrations, for example, plasma glucagon is approximately 50 x 10^-12 g/ml.
p.13
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
How does the body regulate heat?
Through the circulatory system and removal of heat via water and salts.
p.9
Nervous System Regulation
Which systems are involved in regulating O2 and CO2 concentrations?
Respiratory and circulatory systems.
p.15
Organ Systems and Interstitial Fluid Regulation
What are the main components transported by the circulatory system?
O2, CO2, nutrients, water, salts, glucose, amino acids, and heat.
p.1
Single-Cell Organism Adaptation
Why is pH an important factor for single-cell organisms?
pH levels can affect enzyme activity and cellular functions, influencing the organism's ability to survive.
p.12
Organ Systems and Interstitial Fluid Regulation
What substances are regulated by the circulatory system?
Water, salts, nutrients, and heat.
p.26
Hormonal Regulation and Endocrine System
How fast is the response to hormones?
The response is slow, taking minutes to days.
p.19
Hormonal Regulation and Endocrine System
What happens to ECF glucose levels when target tissues take up glucose in response to insulin?
ECF glucose levels go down.
p.7
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What are the main fluid compartments in the human body?
Intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF).
p.27
Hormonal Regulation and Endocrine System
How are hormones removed from circulation?
Hormones are either inactivated by enzymes or excreted in urine.
p.27
Hormonal Regulation and Endocrine System
Where are hormones produced?
Hormones are produced by endocrine glands, usually by cells specialized in producing a single hormone.
p.27
Hormonal Regulation and Endocrine System
Do all cells respond to hormones?
No, all cells are exposed to hormones, but only those with receptors respond.
p.7
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What is the role of interstitial fluid?
To surround and bathe the cells, providing a medium for nutrient and waste exchange.
p.17
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
What is an example of a negative feedback system in a household?
Maintaining the temperature in a room using a thermostat and furnace.
p.13
Organ Systems and Interstitial Fluid Regulation
Which systems are involved in the removal of wastes?
Circulatory, respiratory, and urinary systems.
p.22
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
What signals when the body temperature is below the set point of 37°C?
Negative feedback systems.
p.30
Autocrine and Paracrine Signaling
What is the primary function of autocrine and paracrine regulation?
To provide local control within tissues or organs.
p.12
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
Which systems are involved in water and ion balance?
Digestive, urinary, and circulatory systems.
p.12
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
Which systems regulate the volume and pressure of bodily fluids?
Urinary and digestive systems.
p.1
Single-Cell Organism Adaptation
How does oxygen availability impact single-cell organisms?
Oxygen is crucial for cellular respiration and energy production in many single-cell organisms.
p.8
Organ Systems and Interstitial Fluid Regulation
Which systems work together to keep interstitial fluid within set parameters?
The digestive, circulatory, respiratory, and urinary systems.
p.17
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
What are the four components of all negative feedback systems?
Sensor (receptor), Set Point, Integrator, Effector.
p.26
Hormonal Regulation and Endocrine System
How can a few hormone-producing cells control many cells?
A few hormone-producing cells can control many cells through the widespread distribution of hormones in the circulatory system.
p.29
Hormonal Regulation and Endocrine System
How do hormones interact with the nervous system?
Hormones can change properties of the nervous system.
p.29
Hormonal Regulation and Endocrine System
What are neurosecretory neurons?
Neurons that secrete hormones.
p.30
Autocrine and Paracrine Signaling
How do autocrine and paracrine agents act?
They act only on neighboring cells and do not travel through the blood.
p.8
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What is the first priority of physiology?
To keep the cells happy by maintaining their environment optimal and stable, known as homeostasis.
p.7
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
What is the primary function of the intracellular fluid (ICF)?
To provide a medium for cellular processes.
p.17
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
What happens when the room temperature reaches the set point in a negative feedback system?
The thermostat turns off the furnace.
p.13
Nervous System Regulation
What are the primary gases exchanged in the respiratory system?
Oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
p.13
Organ Systems and Interstitial Fluid Regulation
What is a key function of the urinary system?
Removal of urea and regulation of water and salt balance.
p.15
Nervous System Regulation
Which systems are responsible for the exchange of O2 and CO2?
The respiratory and circulatory systems.
What are the main components transported by the circulatory system?
Glucose, amino acids, water, salts, and heat.
p.22
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
How do negative feedback systems help in temperature regulation?
They integrate responses to restore the body temperature to the set point.
p.15
Organ Systems and Interstitial Fluid Regulation
What are the main functions of the digestive system?
Absorption of nutrients, water, and salts.
p.10
Cellular Communication and Integration
What are the byproducts of cellular metabolism involving glucose, fat, and amino acids?
CO2, H2O, urea, and heat.
p.12
Nervous System Regulation
What are the primary gases exchanged in the respiratory system?
Oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
p.10
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
Which systems are involved in the regulation of body temperature?
Circulatory system and respiratory system.
p.12
Organ Systems and Interstitial Fluid Regulation
What are the primary components transported by the circulatory system?
Glucose, amino acids, water, salts, and heat.
p.17
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
What is the set point in a room temperature control system?
The desired temperature of the room, manually dialed into the thermostat.
p.17
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
In a thermostat system, what does the integrator do?
Compares the actual temperature to the set point.
p.13
Organ Systems and Interstitial Fluid Regulation
What are the key components transported by the circulatory system?
Glucose, amino acids, nutrients, water, salts, and heat.
p.32
Homeostasis and Fluid Compartments
Where do we need to look to understand how cellular changes occur?
At the interface between the cell and its environment (the interstitial fluid).
p.17
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
What happens when the room temperature falls below the set point in a negative feedback system?
The thermostat turns on the furnace to warm up the room.
p.32
Nervous System Regulation
Which systems coordinate physiological changes among multiple organs and tissues?
The nervous and endocrine systems.
p.32
Hormonal Regulation and Endocrine System
What role do hormones and neural signals play in cellular action?
They bring information to the surface of cells.
