p.2
Overview of COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2
Who contributed to the electron micrograph of the Coronavirus?
CDC/ Dr. Michael Shaw; Doug Jordan, M.A.
p.31
Pandemics and Historical Impact of Influenza
What defines a pandemic?
An epidemic over a very large area, affecting a large proportion of a population, often globally.
p.44
Structure and Entry Mechanism of Coronavirus
What is the significance of ACE2 Receptors in viral entry?
They facilitate the entry of the virus into host cells.
p.5
Transmission Modes of Influenza
How does influenza spread?
It spreads rapidly in closed communities.
p.46
Diagnosis and Treatment of Influenza
How long can the virus' genetic material be present after infection?
For weeks after a person is no longer infectious.
p.5
Overview of Influenza Virus
When do most influenza cases occur in the UK?
During an 8 to 10 week period in the winter.
p.40
Structure and Entry Mechanism of Coronavirus
What protein is responsible for the virus's envelope structure?
Envelope glycoprotein (E).
p.29
Antigenic Drift and Shift in Influenza
What is antigenic shift?
A major change in the influenza virus, resulting in new hemagglutinin and/or neuraminidase proteins.
p.29
Pandemics and Historical Impact of Influenza
What significant event occurred in 1968 related to influenza?
The H3 pandemic strain emerged.
p.13
Structure and Entry Mechanism of Coronavirus
What acts as a receptor for the influenza virus?
Sialic acid (Neu5Ac) on a glycoprotein/glycolipid.
p.20
Diagnosis and Treatment of Influenza
What is the primary method for diagnosing influenza?
Usually diagnosis is made from symptoms and clinical assessment.
p.8
Types of Influenza Viruses
What are the main types of influenza viruses?
Influenza A, B, C, and D.
p.38
Overview of COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2
Where and when did COVID-19 originate?
It originated by zoonotic transfer in Wuhan, China in December 2019.
p.11
Transmission Modes of Influenza
What are the three potential modes of transmission for influenza viruses?
1) Small-particle aerosols, 2) Larger droplets, 3) Indirect contact via surfaces.
p.36
Overview of Influenza Virus
How many people are infected by influenza each year?
1 billion people (1,000,000,000).
p.5
Overview of Influenza Virus
What type of infection is influenza?
An acute viral infection of the respiratory tract.
p.28
Antigenic Drift and Shift in Influenza
What is the result of antigenic shift?
The creation of a new subtype of the virus.
p.23
Antigenic Drift and Shift in Influenza
What is antigenic drift?
Genetic changes in the influenza virus.
p.39
Structure and Genetic Material of Influenza Virus
What is the function of the Spike (S) glycoprotein?
Required for entry into cells.
p.36
Diagnosis and Treatment of Influenza
Who does the WHO recommend for annual influenza vaccination?
Pregnant women, children aged 6 months to 5 years, elderly individuals over 65, individuals with chronic medical conditions, and health-care workers.
p.46
Diagnosis and Treatment of Influenza
What do PCR tests detect?
The virus’ genetic material.
p.11
Transmission Modes of Influenza
How are influenza viruses primarily transmitted?
Via the respiratory route (coughing, sneezing, inhaling).
p.4
Types of Influenza Viruses
What role do host organisms play in virus classification?
Viruses can be classified based on the type of host they infect.
p.12
Transmission Modes of Influenza
What role do ciliated respiratory epithelial cells play in defense against influenza?
They continually sweep mucus up from the lower respiratory tract.
p.9
Types of Influenza Viruses
Where do A viruses live and multiply?
In many different animals.
p.17
Symptoms and Complications of Influenza
What are common symptoms of influenza A virus infection?
Sudden onset of fever, chills, headache, muscle/joint pain, extreme fatigue, dry cough, sore throat, stuffy nose.
p.21
Diagnosis and Treatment of Influenza
What are antivirals used for treating influenza?
Rimantadine and amantadine, which inhibit viral uncoating.
p.26
Antigenic Drift and Shift in Influenza
What is antigenic drift?
Minor changes (natural mutations) in the genes of flu viruses that occur gradually over time.
p.39
Structure and Genetic Material of Influenza Virus
What type of virus is Coronaviridae?
Large, enveloped, pleomorphic particles.
p.12
Transmission Modes of Influenza
What type of cells does the influenza virus primarily infect?
Respiratory epithelial cells.
p.42
Overview of COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2
What are coronaviruses?
A family of viruses that can cause illness in animals and humans.
p.13
Structure and Entry Mechanism of Coronavirus
How does the influenza virus enter cells?
Via receptor-mediated endocytosis.
p.4
Transmission Modes of Influenza
What is one alternative method of classifying viruses?
By their mode of transmission.
p.12
Transmission Modes of Influenza
What immunologic defenses are present in the lung against influenza?
Secretory IgA, natural killer (NK) cells, and macrophages.
p.17
Symptoms and Complications of Influenza
What is the incubation period for influenza A virus infection?
1 - 5 days (average 2 - 3 days).
p.42
Overview of COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2
What is the significance of understanding animal reservoirs in controlling outbreaks?
It helps in predicting and preventing potential zoonotic spillovers.
p.11
Transmission Modes of Influenza
What type of contact can lead to infection from larger droplets?
Direct contact with individuals.
p.23
Overview of Influenza Virus
What is a characteristic of viral RNA polymerases in the flu virus?
They have a high error rate.
p.31
Antigenic Drift and Shift in Influenza
Why might the immune systems of individuals be unprepared for a new subtype of influenza virus?
Because it may not have been seen in circulation for many years.
p.30
Antigenic Drift and Shift in Influenza
How can reassortment occur between influenza A viruses?
It can occur between viruses that infect different animal and avian species, such as pigs being infected by human- and avian-specific influenza viruses.
p.45
Structure and Genetic Material of Influenza Virus
What type of RNA does the coronavirus have?
Positive-sense single-stranded RNA (ssRNA).
p.30
Pandemics and Historical Impact of Influenza
What potential does a reassortant virus have?
The potential to spread among humans, birds, and pigs.
p.15
Transmission Modes of Influenza
How does the influenza virus leave infected cells?
Through the cleavage of sialic acid residues by neuraminidase.
p.28
Antigenic Drift and Shift in Influenza
What is antigenic shift?
Major changes in the genes of flu viruses that occur suddenly when two or more different strains combine.
p.25
Naming Influenza Viruses
What does 'A/Michigan/45/2015' refer to in influenza virus naming?
It indicates a specific strain of the influenza virus, including the type, location, and year of isolation.
p.35
Symptoms and Complications of Influenza
What happens when the immune system overreacts to the flu virus?
T-cells attack and destroy the tissues where the virus is replicating, particularly in the lungs, leading to a cytokine storm.
p.28
Antigenic Drift and Shift in Influenza
What can antigenic shift cause?
Widespread epidemics or pandemics.
p.23
Structure and Genetic Material of Influenza Virus
What are the surface antigens of the influenza virus?
Hemagglutinin and neuraminidase.
p.9
Types of Influenza Viruses
What is the main animal reservoir for A viruses?
Birds, particularly wildfowl.
p.24
Antigenic Drift and Shift in Influenza
What was the recommended composition of virus vaccines for the 2023-2024 Northern Hemisphere influenza season?
1. A/Victoria/4897/2022 (H1N1)pdm09-like virus; 2. A/Darwin/6/2021 (H3N2)-like virus; 3. B/Austria/1359417/2021 (B/Victoria lineage)-like virus; 4. B/Phuket/3073/2013 (B/Yamagata lineage)-like virus.
p.43
Structure and Entry Mechanism of Coronavirus
How does coronavirus enter cells?
Through receptor-mediated endocytosis.
p.15
Transmission Modes of Influenza
What are cleavage sites in the context of the influenza virus?
They are specific locations where neuraminidase acts to release the virus from host cells.
p.38
Overview of COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2
What is COVID-19?
An acute viral infection of the respiratory tract.
p.38
Overview of COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2
How does COVID-19 spread?
It spreads rapidly in communities, even from people with mild or no symptoms.
p.40
Structure and Entry Mechanism of Coronavirus
What is the primary genetic material of the Coronavirus?
Single-stranded positive-sense RNA (ss (+)RNA).
p.18
Symptoms and Complications of Influenza
What complications may pregnant women face if they contract influenza?
Perinatal mortality, prematurity, smaller neonatal size, and lower birth weight.
p.24
Antigenic Drift and Shift in Influenza
What organization monitors influenza virus epidemiology worldwide?
World Health Organization (WHO).
p.11
Transmission Modes of Influenza
How can influenza viruses infect others through surfaces?
By landing on surfaces where they remain infectious.
p.17
Diagnosis and Treatment of Influenza
Is influenza A virus infection self-limiting?
Yes, it is self-limiting.
p.21
Diagnosis and Treatment of Influenza
What is a live, attenuated vaccine for influenza?
A cold-adapted vaccine (quadrivalent) administered by nasal spray for influenza A & B (children).
p.41
Overview of COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2
Who is at higher risk for severe disease from SARS-CoV-2?
Older and immunocompromised individuals.
p.31
Antigenic Drift and Shift in Influenza
What does antigenic shift lead to?
A new subtype of influenza virus.
p.12
Transmission Modes of Influenza
What are the barriers to entry for the influenza virus via the respiratory route?
Thick glycocalyx and tracheobronchial mucus.
p.35
Symptoms and Complications of Influenza
What type of secondary infection can occur after a flu infection?
Opportunistic bacterial infections, such as those caused by Streptococcus or Staphylococcus species, usually in the lungs.
p.30
Types of Influenza Viruses
In which animals can influenza type A viruses be found?
In many animals, including horses, pigs, and wild migrating waterfowl.
p.40
Structure and Entry Mechanism of Coronavirus
What is the function of the Spike glycoprotein (S) in Coronavirus?
It facilitates the virus's entry into host cells.
p.30
Transmission Modes of Influenza
What is the significance of pigs coexisting with birds and humans?
It allows for a pig to be simultaneously infected with multiple influenza subtypes.
p.43
Structure and Entry Mechanism of Coronavirus
What is the role of the Spike glycoprotein in coronavirus?
It facilitates the entry of the virus into cells.
p.43
Structure and Entry Mechanism of Coronavirus
Where is ACE2 widely expressed?
In lung, heart, kidney, and gastrointestinal tissue.
p.16
Symptoms and Complications of Influenza
How does influenza typically present in patients?
Sudden onset of symptoms, often including high fever and severe fatigue.
p.22
Diagnosis and Treatment of Influenza
Name two examples of neuraminidase inhibitors.
Oseltamivir (Tamiflu) and Zanamivir (Relenza).
p.6
Structure and Genetic Material of Influenza Virus
What is the function of Haemagglutinin (H) in the Influenza Virus?
Binds to cells of the infected person.
p.46
Diagnosis and Treatment of Influenza
What do LFTs detect in relation to the virus?
Material from the surface proteins of the virus.
p.47
Structure and Entry Mechanism of Coronavirus
What is a characteristic of viral RNA polymerases in coronaviruses?
They have a high error rate.
p.25
Naming Influenza Viruses
What does 'H1N1' signify in the context of influenza viruses?
It refers to a subtype of the influenza A virus, specifically the hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) proteins.
p.47
Structure and Entry Mechanism of Coronavirus
What does genetic variation in coronaviruses contribute to?
Resistance to treatments and vaccines.
p.40
Structure and Entry Mechanism of Coronavirus
What is the role of the Membrane protein (M) in the Coronavirus structure?
It helps maintain the shape of the virus and is involved in the assembly of the viral envelope.
p.9
Types of Influenza Viruses
How do A viruses spread between animals?
They may spread between different animal species.
p.4
Overview of Influenza Virus
What is the primary basis for virus classification?
The structure and type of genetic material.
p.4
Structure and Genetic Material of Influenza Virus
How can viruses be classified based on their structure?
By their shape, size, and presence of an envelope.
p.30
Antigenic Drift and Shift in Influenza
What are reassortants in the context of influenza viruses?
Unique combinations of mRNAs encoding the H and N antigens produced within one host animal, such as a pig.
p.33
Pandemics and Historical Impact of Influenza
What caused the 1957 H2N2 pandemic?
Reassortment of human and avian influenza.
p.18
Symptoms and Complications of Influenza
How long after childbirth are pregnant women at risk for influenza complications?
Up to 2 weeks postpartum.
p.15
Transmission Modes of Influenza
What is the role of neuraminidase in the influenza virus?
Neuraminidase facilitates the release of the virus from infected cells.
p.6
Structure and Genetic Material of Influenza Virus
What are the two surface antigens of the Influenza Virus?
Haemagglutinin (H) and Neuraminidase (N).
p.46
Diagnosis and Treatment of Influenza
When are LFTs likely to give a positive result?
When someone is infectious.
p.10
Structure and Genetic Material of Influenza Virus
What is the role of RdRp in the influenza virus?
It is RNA-dependent RNA polymerase from the infecting virus.
p.25
Naming Influenza Viruses
What does 'pdm09' indicate in the naming of the H1N1 virus?
It denotes the pandemic strain of H1N1 that emerged in 2009.
p.35
Symptoms and Complications of Influenza
What triggers the body's immune response to a viral invasion during the flu?
The production of antibodies and the movement of immune cells to the site of infection.
p.35
Symptoms and Complications of Influenza
What role do cytokines play in the immune response to the flu?
Cytokines are released, leading to local inflammation as part of the immune response.
p.33
Pandemics and Historical Impact of Influenza
What is unique about the 2009 novel H1N1 outbreak?
It contains genes from a combination of human, swine, and avian reassortment.
p.9
Types of Influenza Viruses
What is the general severity of disease caused by B viruses compared to A viruses?
B viruses cause less severe disease.
p.21
Diagnosis and Treatment of Influenza
What are neuraminidase inhibitors used for treating influenza?
Oseltamivir (Tamiflu) and Zanamivir (Relenza), which inhibit viral release from infected cells.
p.31
Pandemics and Historical Impact of Influenza
What is an epidemic?
A widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time.
p.42
Overview of COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2
What role do animal reservoirs play in the spread of coronaviruses?
They serve as sources of new strains that can infect humans.
p.11
Transmission Modes of Influenza
What is the size of small-particle aerosols that can transmit influenza?
Less than 10 μm mass diameter.
p.24
Antigenic Drift and Shift in Influenza
What does WHO recommend regarding influenza strains?
Strains of influenza A & B predicted to circulate in the forthcoming winter.
p.11
Transmission Modes of Influenza
What happens to larger droplets from an infected person?
They typically fall to the ground within 3 meters.
p.18
Symptoms and Complications of Influenza
Who is at higher risk for serious complications from influenza?
Children under six months, older people (over 65), those with underlying health conditions, pregnant women, and individuals with morbid obesity (BMI≥40).
p.27
Antigenic Drift and Shift in Influenza
Which proteins are involved in the antigenic shift of influenza viruses?
Hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) proteins.
p.18
Symptoms and Complications of Influenza
What underlying health conditions increase the risk of serious influenza complications?
Respiratory disease, cardiac disease, long-term neurological conditions, and immunosuppression.
p.18
Symptoms and Complications of Influenza
What is the age group that is particularly vulnerable to influenza complications?
Older people, specifically those over 65 years old.
p.17
Transmission Modes of Influenza
Can people with mild or no symptoms of influenza A still infect others?
Yes, they can still infect others.
p.45
Structure and Genetic Material of Influenza Virus
What does the term 'mRNA' refer to in the context of coronavirus?
It refers to the positive-sense ssRNA that serves as messenger RNA.
p.6
Structure and Genetic Material of Influenza Virus
What is the function of Neuraminidase (N) in the Influenza Virus?
Releases the virus from the host cell surface.
p.27
Antigenic Drift and Shift in Influenza
Which type of influenza viruses show antigenic shift?
Only influenza type A viruses.
p.45
Structure and Genetic Material of Influenza Virus
What is the function of RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) in coronaviruses?
It replicates the viral RNA from the infecting virus.
p.21
Diagnosis and Treatment of Influenza
What type of vaccine is used for influenza prevention?
Formalin-inactivated vaccine (quadrivalent/trivalent) by injection for influenza A & B.
p.21
Diagnosis and Treatment of Influenza
What effect do neuraminidase inhibitors have on viral particles?
They cause aggregation of viral particles.
p.6
Structure and Genetic Material of Influenza Virus
What is the genetic material of the Influenza Virus?
( - ) ssRNA with 8 genes.
p.42
Overview of COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2
Which animals are known to be reservoirs for coronaviruses?
Bats and pangolins are among the primary reservoirs.
p.42
Overview of COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2
How do coronaviruses typically jump from animals to humans?
Through direct contact or via intermediate hosts.
p.43
Structure and Entry Mechanism of Coronavirus
What is ACE2?
A transmembrane protein that acts as a receptor for coronavirus.
p.15
Structure and Genetic Material of Influenza Virus
What are the H and N in HN glycoproteins?
H stands for hemagglutinin and N stands for neuraminidase.
p.22
Diagnosis and Treatment of Influenza
What type of vaccine is used for influenza prevention?
Formalin-inactivated vaccine (quadrivalent/trivalent) by injection for influenza A & B.
p.22
Diagnosis and Treatment of Influenza
What are neuraminidase inhibitors used for?
They inhibit viral release from the infected cell and cause aggregation of viral particles.
p.27
Antigenic Drift and Shift in Influenza
How often does antigenic shift occur in influenza viruses?
Infrequently, maybe every 10 or 20 years.
p.40
Structure and Entry Mechanism of Coronavirus
What is the function of the Nucleocapsid protein (N) in Coronavirus?
It protects the viral RNA and is involved in the replication process.
p.21
Diagnosis and Treatment of Influenza
How do rimantadine and amantadine work?
They inhibit viral uncoating after uptake, probably through the M2 protein in influenza A.
p.41
Overview of COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2
What is the origin of coronaviruses?
Possibly all originated in bats.
p.27
Antigenic Drift and Shift in Influenza
What does antigenic shift involve in terms of genetic changes?
Genetic changes in the influenza A virus surface antigens from different species.
p.16
Symptoms and Complications of Influenza
What complications can arise from influenza?
Pneumonia, bronchitis, sinus infections, and worsening of chronic conditions.
p.6
Structure and Genetic Material of Influenza Virus
What is notable about the RNA polymerases in the Influenza Virus?
They have high error rates.
p.16
Symptoms and Complications of Influenza
What are common symptoms of influenza?
Fever, cough, sore throat, body aches, and fatigue.
p.22
Diagnosis and Treatment of Influenza
How do rimantadine and amantadine work?
They inhibit viral uncoating after uptake, probably through the M2 protein in influenza A.
p.6
Structure and Genetic Material of Influenza Virus
What type of viruses are Orthomyxoviruses?
Spherical, enveloped viruses containing a segmented, negative strand RNA genome.
p.16
Symptoms and Complications of Influenza
Who is at higher risk for complications from influenza?
Young children, elderly adults, pregnant women, and individuals with chronic health conditions.
p.22
Diagnosis and Treatment of Influenza
What are antivirals used for treating influenza?
Rimantadine and amantadine, which inhibit viral uncoating.
p.41
Overview of COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2
When and where did MERS emerge?
In the Middle East in 2012.
p.22
Diagnosis and Treatment of Influenza
What is a live, attenuated vaccine for influenza?
A cold-adapted vaccine (quadrivalent) administered by nasal spray for influenza A & B in children.
