p.23
Concept of Homeostasis
What does interstitial hydrostatic pressure promote?
The movement of interstitial fluid and small amounts of protein into the lymphatics.
p.36
Sodium and Water Regulation
What are two classes of drugs used for the treatment of hypertension?
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers.
p.11
Body Fluid Compartments
What is the formula to calculate total body water?
Total body water = 0.6 x (body weight).
p.18
Concept of Homeostasis
How is the composition of fluids maintained in the body?
By exchanging solutes and water between compartments.
p.21
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What is the equation for net filtration across the capillary wall?
Net filtration = (Forces favoring filtration) – (Forces opposing filtration)
p.11
Body Fluid Compartments
What percentage of body weight is extracellular fluid (ECF)?
ECF = 0.2 x (body weight).
p.3
Body Fluid Compartments
What factors are included in the intracellular composition?
Ions, small molecules, water, pH, and other substances.
What does thirst stimulate an individual to do?
Consume liquids, increasing total body water.
p.30
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
What system is aldosterone a component of?
The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.
p.21
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What are the forces opposing filtration?
Capillary oncotic pressure and interstitial hydrostatic pressure.
p.18
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What is the implication of having more body fat in terms of hydration?
Individuals with more body fat tend to be more susceptible to dehydration.
p.37
Sodium and Water Regulation
When are natriuretic peptides released?
When the transmural atrial pressure increases.
p.32
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
What triggers the release of renin from the kidneys?
Reduced circulating blood volume or blood pressure.
p.37
Sodium and Water Regulation
What condition commonly triggers the release of natriuretic peptides?
Congestive heart failure (CHF).
What maintains the differences in electrolyte concentration between intracellular and extracellular fluids?
An active energy-requiring physiological pump.
p.29
Sodium and Water Regulation
What are some physiological functions of sodium (Na+)?
Nerve impulse conduction, regulation of acid-base balance, cellular biochemistry, and transport of substances across the cellular membrane.
p.49
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What condition results from excess water in the body?
Hypervolemia and water intoxication.
p.18
Body Fluid Compartments
What are the two main fluid compartments in the body?
Intracellular and extracellular fluids.
p.23
Concept of Homeostasis
What happens to fluid once it enters the lymphatic system?
It travels through progressively larger lymphatic vessels until it enters systemic circulation.
p.39
Water Movement Mechanisms
What regulates water balance in the body?
The secretion of ADH (vasopressin).
p.39
Water Movement Mechanisms
Where is ADH produced?
In the posterior pituitary.
p.36
Sodium and Water Regulation
Why are direct renin inhibitors used less commonly?
Because of their less favorable safety profile.
p.20
Water Movement Mechanisms
How does interstitial hydrostatic pressure affect fluid movement?
It facilitates the inward movement of water from the interstitial space into the capillary.
p.27
Edema Formation Mechanisms
What is pitting edema?
A type of edema where pressure applied to the swollen area leaves a temporary indentation.
p.29
Sodium and Water Regulation
Which two major anions work with sodium (Na+) to regulate water balance?
Chloride and bicarbonate.
p.32
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
What other conditions can lead to the release of renin?
Depressed sodium levels or increased potassium levels.
p.25
Concept of Homeostasis
Under normal conditions, how does ICF respond to changes in osmolality?
ICF is not subject to rapid changes in osmolality.
p.4
Concept of Homeostasis
What does the human body have to achieve homeostasis?
Multiple systems designed for this purpose.
p.22
Concept of Homeostasis
What occurs at the arterial end of the capillary during net filtration?
Hydrostatic pressure exceeds capillary oncotic pressure, causing fluid to move into the interstitial space.
p.1
Concept of Homeostasis
What is homeostasis?
The maintenance of a stable internal environment in the body.
p.48
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What happens to cells during hypotonic fluid imbalances?
Intracellular overhydration and cellular swelling occur.
p.35
Sodium and Water Regulation
What triggers the release of aldosterone?
Low blood sodium levels or high potassium levels.
p.34
Sodium and Water Regulation
What is the role of aldosterone in the kidneys?
It promotes sodium and water reabsorption and the excretion of potassium within the renal tubules.
p.11
Body Fluid Compartments
What percentage of body weight is intracellular fluid (ICF)?
ICF = 0.4 x (body weight).
p.18
Body Fluid Compartments
What factors influence the percentage of Total Body Water (TBW)?
The amount of body fat and age.
p.27
Edema Formation Mechanisms
What is lymphedema?
A condition characterized by swelling due to lymphatic system blockage.
p.25
Osmolality and Tonicity
What happens to water movement between ICF and ECF when ECF osmolality changes?
Water moves from one compartment to another until osmotic equilibrium is reestablished.
p.42
Osmolality and Tonicity
What characterizes isotonic solutions?
They have solute concentrations equal to that of normal cells.
Where is calcium concentration greater?
In the extracellular fluid.
p.35
Sodium and Water Regulation
What is the primary function of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?
To regulate water reabsorption in the kidneys.
p.32
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
What enzyme converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II?
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE).
p.43
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What is hypovolemia?
Less than normal volume in the blood.
p.35
Sodium and Water Regulation
What triggers the release of ADH?
Increased plasma osmolality or decreased blood volume.
p.1
Body Fluid Compartments
What are body fluid compartments?
Distinct areas in the body where fluids are contained, such as intracellular and extracellular spaces.
p.49
Osmolality and Tonicity
What effect does sodium depletion have on osmolality?
It usually causes a decrease in osmolality.
p.34
Sodium and Water Regulation
What is the net effect of aldosterone's action?
To increase blood volume.
p.46
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What are the hematocrit and plasma protein concentration levels during hypervolemia?
Both decrease due to dilution.
p.17
Water Movement Mechanisms
What role do electrolytes play in water movement?
They facilitate the movement of water among body compartments.
p.31
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
What are the effects of angiotensin II?
It causes vasoconstriction and stimulates aldosterone secretion.
p.2
Body Fluid Compartments
What is the distribution of body fluids and electrolytes?
Body fluids are distributed between intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF), with electrolytes like Na+, K+, and Cl- playing key roles.
p.2
Water Movement Mechanisms
What are the principles of epithelial transport?
Mechanisms by which substances move across epithelial cells, involving active and passive transport processes.
p.13
Body Fluid Compartments
What is interstitial fluid?
Fluid found in the spaces between cells but not within blood vessels.
p.38
Sodium and Water Regulation
How does chloride transport generally occur?
It is passive and follows the active transport of sodium.
p.3
Concept of Homeostasis
What is required for normal cellular function?
Maintenance of intracellular composition within a narrow range.
p.20
Water Movement Mechanisms
What is the effect of capillary oncotic pressure?
It osmotically attracts water from the interstitial space into the capillary.
p.39
Water Movement Mechanisms
When is ADH secreted?
When plasma osmolality increases or circulating blood volume decreases.
p.28
Sodium and Water Regulation
What hormone primarily regulates water balance?
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also known as vasopressin.
p.10
Concept of Homeostasis
What is homeostasis?
The concept of steady-state balance in the body's fluid environment.
p.6
Concept of Homeostasis
What role do sensors play in homeostasis?
They monitor deviations from the set point and generate effector signals.
p.6
Concept of Homeostasis
What are 'effector signals'?
Signals generated by sensors that lead to changes to maintain the desired set point.
p.10
Water Movement Mechanisms
What happens when there are changes in electrolyte concentration?
It results in fluid shifts from one compartment to another.
p.24
Sodium and Water Regulation
What balances the osmotic force of ICF proteins and nondiffusible substances?
Active transport of ions out of the cell.
p.48
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What defines hypotonic fluid imbalances?
When the osmolality of the ECF is less than 280 mOsm/Kg.
p.44
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What characterizes an isotonic imbalance?
Gain or loss of ECF resulting in concentration equivalent to normal saline; no shrinking or swelling of cells.
p.22
Concept of Homeostasis
What happens at the venous end of the capillary?
Oncotic pressure within the capillary exceeds hydrostatic pressure, leading to fluid moving back into the capillary.
p.9
Concept of Homeostasis
What happens when deviations in osmolality are sensed?
Two effector signals are generated: neural and hormonal.
What are electrolytes and solutes distributed throughout?
Intracellular and extracellular fluids.
p.49
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What can happen to cells due to sodium depletion?
Water movement into cells may cause cell membrane rupture.
What is one function maintained by electrolyte concentration?
Electroneutrality between extracellular and intracellular compartments.
p.13
Body Fluid Compartments
What are the main compartments for body fluid distribution?
Intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF).
p.28
Sodium and Water Regulation
How is water balance related to sodium concentration?
Water follows the osmotic gradients established by changes in salt concentration.
p.5
Concept of Homeostasis
What factors can affect the amounts of substances added to or lost from the body?
Environment, access to food and water, and disease processes.
p.3
Water Movement Mechanisms
How is the intracellular composition maintained?
By the transport of substances and water via membrane transport proteins.
Which electrolytes have greater concentrations in intracellular fluid?
Phosphates and magnesium.
p.27
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What causes alterations in water movement leading to edema?
Imbalances in hydrostatic and osmotic pressures.
p.4
Body Fluid Compartments
How do these daily processes affect a healthy individual's body fluid compartments?
They occur without significant changes in volume or composition.
p.29
Sodium and Water Regulation
How does sodium (Na+) contribute to water balance?
By contributing to extracellular osmotic forces.
p.10
Body Fluid Compartments
What effect do fluid fluctuations have on the body?
They affect blood volume.
p.34
Sodium and Water Regulation
What effect does vasoconstriction have on blood pressure?
It elevates blood pressure and restores renal perfusion.
p.35
Sodium and Water Regulation
How do ADH and aldosterone work together?
ADH retains water while aldosterone retains sodium, both increasing plasma volume.
p.49
Sodium and Water Regulation
What are the causes of hyponatremia?
Loss of sodium, inadequate intake of sodium, or sodium dilution due to excess water.
p.48
Osmolality and Tonicity
What occurs when there is a sodium deficit in the ECF?
The osmotic pressure of the ECF decreases, causing water to move into the cell.
p.46
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What are common causes of hypervolemia?
Excessive administration of IV fluids, hypersecretion of aldosterone, or effects of drugs like cortisone.
Why are differences in electrolyte concentration important?
They maintain several physiological functions.
p.31
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
What is the primary function of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)?
To regulate blood pressure and fluid balance.
p.19
Body Fluid Compartments
What is the daily fluid intake range for a 70-kg adult?
1400 – 1800 mL from drinking and 700 – 1000 mL from food.
p.31
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
What role does aldosterone play in the body?
It promotes sodium and water reabsorption in the kidneys.
p.2
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What can cause alterations in water movement?
Changes in osmotic pressure, solute concentration, or membrane permeability can alter water movement.
p.30
Sodium and Water Regulation
How is serum Na+ concentration maintained?
Through renal tubular reabsorption in response to neural and hormonal influences.
p.36
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
How do ACE inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers affect blood pressure?
They inhibit the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and lower blood pressure.
p.5
Concept of Homeostasis
What does it mean for the human body to be an open system?
Substances are added to and lost from the body each day.
How does chloride concentration vary with bicarbonate concentration?
Chloride concentration tends to vary inversely with changes in bicarbonate concentration.
p.37
Sodium and Water Regulation
Which hormone is produced by the atria?
Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH).
p.41
Osmolality and Tonicity
What is the normal plasma osmolality?
280 milliosmoles (mOsm)/kg.
p.14
Body Fluid Compartments
Name an example of transcellular fluid.
Synovial fluid, cerebral spinal fluid, gastrointestinal fluids, pleural fluids, pericardial fluids, peritoneal fluids, or urine.
p.7
Concept of Homeostasis
What happens when input is less than output in homeostasis?
A state of negative balance exists.
What effect does ADH have on the kidneys?
Increases water reabsorption from the renal distal tubules and collecting ducts into the plasma.
p.39
Osmolality and Tonicity
What leads to increased plasma osmolality?
A decrease in water or an excess concentration of sodium in relation to total body water.
p.37
Sodium and Water Regulation
What is BNP a diagnostic marker for?
Congestive heart failure (CHF).
p.35
Sodium and Water Regulation
How does aldosterone contribute to urine and plasma volume regulation?
By promoting sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion in the kidneys.
p.9
Concept of Homeostasis
Which part of the brain monitors body fluid osmolality?
Cells within the hypothalamus.
p.44
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What defines a hypertonic imbalance?
Serum osmolality >294 mOsm/kg, resulting in ECF concentration >0.9% salt solution; cells shrink in hypertonic fluid.
p.34
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
What does Angiotensin II stimulate?
The secretion of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex and antidiuretic hormone from the posterior pituitary.
p.1
Body Fluid Compartments
What is the significance of volume in body fluid compartments?
It is crucial for maintaining physiological functions and overall homeostasis.
p.9
Concept of Homeostasis
What does the neural signal relate to?
The individual's sensation of thirst.
p.47
Water Movement Mechanisms
How does water redistribute in hypertonic fluid alterations?
Water is redistributed osmotically to the hypertonic extracellular space, causing intracellular dehydration.
p.46
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What physical signs may indicate hypervolemia?
Distended neck veins and increased blood pressure.
p.2
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What are hypertonic alterations?
Conditions where the extracellular fluid has a higher osmolarity than the intracellular fluid, causing cells to shrink.
p.41
Sodium and Water Regulation
How are sodium and water balance related?
Alterations in sodium and water balance are closely related.
p.20
Water Movement Mechanisms
What role does capillary hydrostatic pressure play in fluid movement?
It facilitates the movement of water from the capillary into the interstitial space.
p.42
Osmolality and Tonicity
How are solutions classified in relation to normal body cells?
As isotonic, hypertonic, or hypotonic based on solute concentration.
p.8
Water Movement Mechanisms
What factors influence water loss through the lungs?
Humidity of the air and the rate of respiration.
p.6
Concept of Homeostasis
What is the purpose of a 'set point' in homeostasis?
To monitor deviations from a baseline for steady-state balance.
p.24
Water Movement Mechanisms
How does water move through the cell membrane?
By diffusion through the lipid bilayer and through aquaporins.
What hormone is released by the posterior pituitary gland in response to osmoreceptor signaling?
ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone).
p.20
Water Movement Mechanisms
What is the function of interstitial oncotic pressure?
It osmotically attracts water from the capillary into the interstitial space.
Why is maintaining electrolyte and acid-base concentrations important?
It ensures proper electrical activity of nerve and muscle cells.
p.42
Osmolality and Tonicity
What defines hypotonic solutions?
They have less solute concentration than normal cells.
What effect do changes in tonicity have on water balance?
They affect the volume of water within the intracellular and extracellular compartments, impacting homeostasis.
p.6
Concept of Homeostasis
What must effector organs do in response to effector signals?
They must respond appropriately to maintain homeostasis.
p.47
Osmolality and Tonicity
What defines hypertonic fluid alterations?
When the osmolality of the ECF is elevated above normal (>294 mOsm).
p.35
Sodium and Water Regulation
What effect does ADH have on urine concentration?
It increases urine concentration by reducing urine volume.
p.49
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What serious conditions can occur due to excess water?
Cerebral and pulmonary edema.
p.26
Edema Formation Mechanisms
What is the effect of decreased oncotic pressure on edema formation?
It reduces the ability of blood vessels to retain fluid, causing fluid to leak into tissues.
What serum sodium level indicates hypernatremia?
When serum sodium levels exceed 145 mEq/L.
p.19
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What are two major sources of insensible fluid loss?
Sweating and lung ventilation.
p.46
Edema Formation Mechanisms
What leads to edema formation in hypervolemia?
Decreased capillary oncotic pressure.
p.2
Water Movement Mechanisms
How does water move between plasma and interstitial fluid?
Water movement occurs through osmosis, driven by osmotic gradients.
p.28
Sodium and Water Regulation
What systems play a central role in maintaining sodium and water balance?
The renal and endocrine systems.
p.45
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What are isotonic fluid alterations?
Changes in total body water (TBW) that occur with proportional changes in electrolyte concentrations.
How do changes in chloride concentration relate to sodium concentration?
Increases or decreases in chloride concentration are proportional to changes in sodium concentration.
What are the main electrolytes found in extracellular fluid?
Sodium and chloride, with smaller amounts of potassium.
p.21
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What are the forces favoring filtration?
Capillary hydrostatic pressure and interstitial oncotic pressure.
p.18
Body Fluid Compartments
Why do individuals with more body fat have less Total Body Water (TBW)?
Because fat is hydrophobic and contains very little water.
p.4
Concept of Homeostasis
What is homeostasis in the context of body fluid compartments?
The maintenance of constant volume and composition of body fluid compartments.
p.8
Water Movement Mechanisms
What affects the amount of water lost as sweat?
Ambient temperature and physical activity.
p.5
Concept of Homeostasis
How does homeostasis occur in the human body?
Through the process of steady-state balance.
p.30
Sodium and Water Regulation
What factors influence aldosterone secretion?
Circulating blood volume, blood pressure, and plasma concentrations of sodium and potassium.
p.7
Concept of Homeostasis
Can transient periods of imbalance be tolerated in the human body?
Yes, but prolonged states of imbalance are generally incompatible with life.
p.27
Edema Formation Mechanisms
What is edema?
The accumulation of excess fluid in body tissues.
p.32
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
What substance does renin stimulate the formation of?
Angiotensin I from angiotensinogen.
p.43
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What does hypervolemia refer to?
Excess volume than normal in the blood.
p.48
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What are the most common causes of hypotonic fluid imbalances?
Sodium deficit or water excess.
p.32
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
What is the effect of angiotensin II?
It is a potent vasoconstrictor.
p.44
Osmolality and Tonicity
What is the formula for calculating serum osmolarity?
(2 × [Na] + [Glu])/18 + BUN/2.8.
How does composition affect body fluid compartments?
The concentration of electrolytes and other solutes influences fluid movement and balance.
p.9
Concept of Homeostasis
How is water balance maintained in the body?
By adjusting water input, output, or both in response to signals.
p.2
Water Movement Mechanisms
What is the movement of water between intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF)?
Water moves between ICF and ECF based on osmotic pressure and solute concentration.
p.8
Water Movement Mechanisms
What are the two regulated inputs and outputs of water in the body?
Increased ingestion of water in response to thirst and alterations in urine output by the kidneys.
p.23
Concept of Homeostasis
Where does the lymphatic thoracic duct join the circulatory system?
At the left subclavian vein.
p.14
Body Fluid Compartments
Where are transcellular fluids contained?
Within epithelial-lined cavities of the body.
p.7
Concept of Homeostasis
What occurs when input is greater than output in the context of homeostasis?
A state of positive balance exists.
p.37
Sodium and Water Regulation
What is produced by the ventricles?
B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP).
p.39
Water Movement Mechanisms
What causes a drop in blood pressure related to ADH secretion?
A decrease in circulating blood volume.
p.3
Water Movement Mechanisms
What role do membrane transport proteins play in cellular function?
They facilitate the transport of substances and water into and out of the cell.
p.25
Edema Formation Mechanisms
What are the physiological conditions that promote fluid flow into tissues?
Increased capillary hydrostatic pressure, decreased plasma oncotic pressure, increased capillary membrane permeability, and lymphatic channel obstruction.
p.10
Concept of Homeostasis
How do alterations in acid-base balance affect cells?
They disrupt cell functions.
p.6
Concept of Homeostasis
What factors influence the sensitivity of the homeostatic system?
Several factors, though specific factors are not detailed in the text.
p.10
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What can disturbances in electrolyte and acid-base balance lead to?
They can be life-threatening.
p.47
Water Movement Mechanisms
What happens to intracellular fluid (ICF) during hypertonic fluid alterations?
ICF becomes dehydrated as water is attracted to the hypertonic extracellular fluid (ECF).
p.26
Edema Formation Mechanisms
How does lymphatic obstruction lead to edema?
It prevents the drainage of excess interstitial fluid, causing accumulation.
p.48
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What is the effect of water leaving the ECF during hypotonic fluid imbalances?
Plasma volume decreases, resulting in symptoms of hypovolemia.
How do Na+, K+, and Cl- affect water balance?
These electrolytes influence osmotic gradients, which regulate water distribution in the body.
p.7
Concept of Homeostasis
What is the significance of recognizing deviations from steady-state balance in the human body?
It is important for understanding homeostasis.
p.45
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What are some causes of isotonic fluid loss?
Hemorrhage, severe wound drainage, excessive diaphoresis, and inadequate fluid intake.
What is the primary electrolyte in intracellular fluid?
Potassium, with smaller amounts of sodium and chloride.
p.45
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What are clinical signs of isotonic fluid loss?
Weight loss, dry skin and mucous membranes, decreased urine output, and symptoms of hypovolemia.
p.4
Body Fluid Compartments
What processes occur daily that affect body fluid compartments?
Ingestion of food and water, and excretion of waste products.
p.8
Water Movement Mechanisms
Can all inputs and outputs of water in the body be regulated?
No, many cannot be regulated.
p.42
Osmolality and Tonicity
What is the characteristic of hypertonic solutions?
They have more solute concentration than normal cells.
p.26
Edema Formation Mechanisms
What is edema?
The accumulation of excess fluid in the interstitial spaces of tissues.
p.26
Edema Formation Mechanisms
What role does increased capillary permeability play in edema formation?
It allows more fluid and proteins to escape into the interstitial space, leading to swelling.
p.34
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
What happens when renal perfusion is restored?
It inhibits further release of renin.
p.9
Sodium and Water Regulation
What hormone regulates the amount of water excreted by the kidneys?
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
How do electrolytes affect the transmission of signals in the body?
They are crucial for the transmission of electrical impulses.
p.46
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What serious conditions can frequently develop due to hypervolemia?
Pulmonary edema and heart failure.
p.31
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
How does the RAAS affect blood volume?
By increasing sodium and water retention, thus increasing blood volume.
p.2
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What are isotonic alterations?
Changes in body fluid volume without altering osmolarity, leading to equal solute concentration inside and outside cells.
What are the most common causes of hypertonic fluid alterations?
Hypernatremia or a deficit of ECF water, or both.
p.26
Edema Formation Mechanisms
How does increased hydrostatic pressure contribute to edema?
It pushes fluid out of the capillaries into the surrounding tissues.
p.44
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What is a hypotonic imbalance?
Serum osmolality <280 mOsm/kg, resulting in ECF <0.9% salt solution; cells swell in hypotonic fluid.
p.26
Edema Formation Mechanisms
What is the impact of sodium retention on edema?
It increases fluid retention in the body, contributing to swelling.
p.31
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
What triggers the release of renin?
Low blood pressure or low sodium levels.
p.2
Concept of Homeostasis
What is the concept of steady-state balance in body fluids?
It refers to the maintenance of stable internal conditions despite external changes.
p.2
Physiological Effects of Electrolyte Concentration
What is membrane potential?
The voltage difference across a cell membrane, crucial for nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction.
p.12
Body Fluid Compartments
Why is the distribution of intracellular water less in females?
Due to larger amounts of subcutaneous tissue and smaller muscle mass.
p.31
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
What enzyme converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II?
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE).
p.2
Fluid Imbalances: Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
What are hypotonic alterations?
Conditions where the extracellular fluid has a lower osmolarity than the intracellular fluid, causing cells to swell.
