Rome imported massive quantities of grain from Sicily and Egypt to feed its huge population.
Roman society was highly conscious of status, determined largely by the public achievements of ancestors and living family members, often displayed through portraits.
The Conflict of the Orders refers to the struggle between the elite (patricians) and the majority of the population (plebeians) in Roman society, characterized by plebeians' refusal to work or fight to pressure the elite for political concessions.
Wang Fu's essay highlights that success was often based on connections to powerful individuals rather than merit, as those who were talented but lacked influential relationships were overlooked.
A Jew from Galilee in northern Israel who sought to reform Jewish beliefs and practices. He was executed as a revolutionary by the Romans. Hailed as the Messiah and son of God by his followers, he became the central figure in Christianity, a belief system that developed in the centuries after his death.
Numina refers to the invisible forces believed by early Romans to influence various aspects of life, often associated with specific deities.
Legal experts in the Roman Republic were individuals who analyzed laws and legal procedures, acting more as teachers than modern lawyers, and their interpretations often had the force of law.
The expansion of the Roman Empire and the concentration of wealth among the upper classes, along with the inadequacies of provincial administration, contributed to the eventual failure of the Republican system of government.
Agriculture was the essential economic activity in the early Roman state, with land ownership being the basis of wealth and social status.
Equites were prosperous landowners in ancient Italy, second in wealth and status to the senatorial aristocracy, who were allied with Roman emperors to counterbalance the influence of the old aristocracy and staffed the imperial civil service.
Roman citizenship was a set of political, legal, and economic privileges granted by the Romans, often extended to conquered populations, allowing them to participate in the Roman state.
The poor lived in crowded slums that were damp, dark, and smelly, often in wooden tenements that were susceptible to frequent fires and had few furnishings.
Romulus is a legendary figure said to have been cast adrift on the Tiber River as a baby and to have founded the city of Rome in 753 B.C.E.
Augustus, the honorific name of Octavian, was the founder of the Roman Principate and established a military dictatorship that replaced the failing rule of the Roman Senate, laying the groundwork for stability and prosperity in the Roman Empire.
Roman Law refers to the legal system of ancient Rome, which was studied and codified by legal experts, focusing on principles related to persons, things, and actions, and has influenced European law.
The Twelve Tables were a set of laws published around 450 B.C.E. that served as a check on arbitrary decisions by judicial officials in ancient Rome.
The Senate was a council of wealthy, landowning families that effectively governed the Roman state and the growing empire, making policy and holding significant power.
Latifundia are large estates or ranches in ancient Italy that replaced small, self-sufficient farms, often owned by wealthy investors who took over the farms of soldiers away on military service.
The Roman army was the chief instrument of expansion, composed of male citizens who were trained and disciplined, allowing for flexible military maneuvers.
The Punic Wars were a series of conflicts between Rome and Carthage from 264 to 202 B.C.E., which established Rome as the dominant power in the western Mediterranean and led to its first overseas provinces.
The influx of Easterners, including freed prisoners of war, created competition for jobs and contracts, leading to resentment and a resurgence of Roman prejudice against Greeks.
Gaius Marius was a Roman general and politician who accepted poor, propertyless men into his legions and promised them farms upon retirement, significantly altering the composition of the Roman military.
An atrium is a rectangular courtyard with an open skylight that lets in light and rainwater for drinking and washing, typically found in the houses of the upper classes in Rome.
Initially, Roman women were under the absolute authority of their paterfamilias and could not own property or represent themselves legally. Over time, they gained greater personal protection and economic freedom.
Literally, 'Roman peace,' it connoted the stability and prosperity that Roman rule brought to the lands of the Roman Empire in the first two centuries C.E.
The Roman Empire was characterized as an 'urban' empire due to its administration through a network of towns and cities, despite a majority of the population living in rural areas engaged in agriculture.
The paterfamilias was the oldest living male in a Roman family who exercised absolute authority over other family members.
A Jew from the Greek city of Tarsus in Anatolia, he initially persecuted the followers of Jesus but, after receiving a revelation on the road to Syrian Damascus, became a Christian. Taking advantage of his Hellenized background and Roman citizenship, he traveled throughout Syria-Palestine, Anatolia, and Greece, preaching the new religion and establishing churches.
Pax deorum, or 'peace of the gods,' was a covenant between the gods and the Roman state, maintained through rituals and sacrifices by priests.
The Samnite Wars were a series of three conflicts between the Romans and the Samnite tribes of central Italy, which resulted in Roman expansion over nearly the entire Italian peninsula by 290 B.C.E.
The municipal aristocracy consisted of local elites who ran regional affairs with considerable autonomy, imitating the manners and conduct of Roman senators.
The Tiber River provided natural protection and was a crucial navigable waterway that facilitated trade and military movement.
Tenant farmers cultivated plots of land in return for a portion of their crops, providing a new source of labor for landowners after the era of conquest ended.
Jupiter was the god of the sky in Roman mythology, equated with the Greek god Zeus.
Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general known for his conquest of the Celtic peoples of Gaul between 59 and 51 B.C.E., leading to significant territorial acquisitions for Rome in Europe.
Educated, middle-class Romans struggled to compete with skilled individuals from the Greek-speaking Eastern Mediterranean, who were adept at ingratiating themselves with the wealthy and powerful.
Pompeii, buried by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, provides archaeological insights into the streets, stores, and houses of a typical Roman town.
The Roman consuls, serving only one year in office, were motivated to gain military glory, which contributed to the aggressive expansion of the Roman state.
Provincial governors, typically senators, were responsible for defending provinces, overseeing tax collection, and deciding legal cases, but often lacked competence due to political connections rather than merit.
Rome's central location contributed to its success in unifying Italy and the lands around the Mediterranean Sea, acting as a crossroads within Italy.
The process by which the Latin language and Roman culture became dominant in the western provinces. Indigenous peoples in the provinces often chose to Romanize because of the political and economic advantages that it brought, as well as the allure of Roman success.
The Digest of Justinian was a compilation of Roman law that represented the culmination of centuries of legal development and interpretation, completed in the sixth century CE.
Tribunes were new officials created to represent the non-elite classes in Roman society, who had the power to veto actions of the Assembly or officials that threatened the interests of the lower orders.
Some urban dwellers got rich from manufacture and trade, benefiting from the extensive network of well-built roads and the safety provided by the pax romana.
Factors contributing to socioeconomic mobility in imperial Rome included conditions of peace and stability, the construction of roads, increased wealth, and the presence of large urban centers with potential customers.
The patron/client relationship was a fundamental social relationship where a wealthy patron provided legal and economic protection to clients of lesser status, who in return supported the patron's political and economic interests.
The Principate is a term used to characterize Roman government in the first three centuries C.E., based on the ambiguous title 'princeps' adopted by Augustus to conceal his military dictatorship.
Juvenal's Third Satire explores themes of frustration and danger in urban life, the lack of reward for respectable skills, and the social dynamics between Romans and Greeks in the city.
The Republic refers to the period from 507 to 31 B.C.E., during which Rome was largely governed by the aristocratic Roman Senate.
Consuls were the highest officials in the Roman Republic, presiding over meetings of the Senate and Assembly and commanding the army during military campaigns.
