p.22
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What organism produces Domoic acid?
Pseudonitzschia spp. and Nitzschia navis-varingica.
p.3
Microbial Toxins and Their Origins
What are microbial toxins derived from?
Algal, bacterial, or fungal origin (e.g., bread mold).
p.18
Shellfish Poisoning Types
What are Azaspiracids?
Toxins that cause symptoms similar to DSP (Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning).
p.24
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What is Domoic acid?
A neurotoxin produced by certain algae.
p.72
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What is the heat resistance characteristic of C. botulinum spores?
They are very heat resistant.
p.14
Microbial Toxins and Their Origins
Which organisms produce Okadaic Acid and Dinophysistoxins?
Dinoflagellates, specifically Prorocentrum and Dinophysis spp.
p.1
Classification of Natural Toxins
What are natural toxins?
Toxic substances produced by living organisms.
p.23
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What triggers the release of endogenous Ca2+ in the pre-synaptic cell?
Depolarization of the pre-synaptic cell.
p.66
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What is the role of sodium ions in neuronal action potentials?
Sodium ions influx leads to depolarization of the neuron.
p.16
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What is Okadaic Acid associated with?
Consumption of Pipis (Plebidonax deltoids).
p.86
Classification of Natural Toxins
What is the focus of the journal Toxicological Sciences?
Research and studies related to toxicology.
p.9
Natural Toxins in Seafood
What is Ciguatera?
A type of natural toxin found in seafood.
p.24
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What are the effects of Domoic acid on humans?
It can cause amnesic shellfish poisoning, leading to memory loss and neurological issues.
p.4
Microbial Toxins and Their Origins
Which groups are most at risk for food poisoning in Hong Kong?
Children, elderly, and individuals with weakened immune systems.
p.3
Microbial Toxins and Their Origins
What is the main focus regarding microbial toxins in food systems?
To control the risk by limiting concentration.
p.61
Microbial Toxins and Their Origins
What factor contributes to variability in biomagnification trends?
Complex predator-prey relationships.
p.29
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
How do brevetoxins affect neurological processes?
They bind to voltage-gated sodium channels and disrupt neurological processes.
p.3
Microbial Toxins and Their Origins
What is a primary method for controlling foodborne pathogens?
Controlling the growth of microorganisms or altering environmental conditions.
p.91
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
Which fungi produce Ochratoxin A?
Fungi of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium.
p.2
Classification of Natural Toxins
What is a phytotoxin?
A toxin derived from plants.
p.19
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
How does biotransformation in mussels affect azaspiracids?
It increases their toxicity.
p.97
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
On which crops is Zearalenone commonly found?
Corn, wheat, barley, oats, and sorghum.
p.24
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
How is Domoic acid introduced into the marine food web?
Through the consumption of toxic algae by shellfish.
p.68
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What causes symptoms in bacterial toxin-related illnesses?
Toxins secreted by bacteria, not bacterial infection.
p.6
Microbial Toxins and Their Origins
What role did improper food handling play in food poisoning cases in Hong Kong in 2009?
It contributed to the spread of pathogens.
p.14
Natural Toxins in Seafood
What additional health risk is associated with Okadaic Acid?
It acts as a tumor promoter.
p.101
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
What is the significance of the study published in Toxins 2021?
It reports the detection of ZEA in humans.
p.14
Natural Toxins in Seafood
Where can Dinophysistoxins be found?
In planktonic and benthic algae in temperate and tropical regions.
p.31
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What is the FDA action level for brevetoxins in shellfish?
20 MU/100 grams of shellfish tissue.
p.50
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What organism produces ciguatoxins?
The tropical benthic dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus.
p.97
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
What is Zearalenone (ZEA)?
A mycotoxin produced by Fusarium graminearum and other Fusarium species.
p.16
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
From which organisms was Okadaic Acid first identified?
From sponges and mussels.
p.3
Microbial Toxins and Their Origins
Why is it impossible to achieve zero concentration of microbial toxins in food?
Because they are produced by living organisms.
p.29
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What is the solubility characteristic of brevetoxins?
They are lipid soluble and readily absorbed.
p.17
Shellfish Poisoning Types
How much Azaspiracid toxin (AZA1) was isolated from the mussels during the 1995 outbreak?
2 mg of toxin from 20 kg of mussels.
p.15
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What is Prorocentrum minimum?
A species of dinoflagellate found in marine environments.
p.1
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
What can be a source of natural toxins in food?
Plants, animals, and microorganisms.
p.83
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
Can mold species affect human health?
Yes, some mold species can lead to respiratory issues and other health problems.
p.87
Aflatoxins and Their Health Risks
What color fluorescence do aflatoxins emit under UV light?
Blue and green fluorescence.
p.6
Microbial Toxins and Their Origins
How did foodborne illnesses impact public health in Hong Kong in 2009?
They led to increased hospitalizations and health concerns.
p.31
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What routine monitoring is conducted related to brevetoxins?
Monitoring of K. brevis cell count in seawater.
p.70
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
Can botulogenic toxins be destroyed by heat?
Yes, they can be destroyed by heat at 70°C.
p.18
Shellfish Poisoning Types
What symptoms do victims of Azaspiracid poisoning exhibit?
Symptoms similar to those of Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP).
p.2
Classification of Natural Toxins
How are toxins normally classified?
According to origin, then chemical structure and toxic mechanism.
p.14
Shellfish Poisoning Types
What are Okadaic Acid and Dinophysistoxins associated with?
Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP).
p.50
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What processes do ciguatoxins undergo in fish?
Bioaccumulation and biotransformation.
p.9
Natural Toxins in Seafood
How do shellfish acquire toxins?
They accumulate toxins through their diet.
p.40
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What is the mechanism of action of tetrodotoxin?
It blocks sodium channels.
p.51
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What are ciguatoxins (CTX)?
Ciguatoxins are potent marine toxins produced by certain dinoflagellates.
p.1
Natural Toxins in Seafood
Why is it important to study natural toxins?
To understand their health risks and ensure food safety.
p.2
Classification of Natural Toxins
What is an animal toxin?
A rare toxin derived from animals.
p.15
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
Where can information about Prorocentrum minimum be found?
On the website www.sms.si.edu/irlspec/Proroc_minimu.htm.
p.15
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What type of organism is Dinophysis sp?
A genus of dinoflagellates known for producing toxins.
p.94
Trichothecenes and Their Toxicity
In which crops have Trichothecenes been detected?
Corn, wheat, barley, oats, rice, rye, vegetables, and other crops.
p.30
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What is the effect of brevetoxins on the mean open state of sodium channels?
Inability to reverse this prolonged mean open state.
p.82
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
What is Zearalenone (ZEA)?
A mycotoxin produced by molds that can affect crops.
p.80
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What may be the cause of illness after Bacillus cereus spores survive in the small intestine?
Subsequent production of toxins by surviving B. cereus spores.
p.13
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What are Dinophysistoxins (DTXs) known for?
They are a type of algal toxin.
p.13
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What are Saxitoxins known for?
They are algal toxins that can cause paralytic shellfish poisoning.
p.34
Classification of Natural Toxins
Where is the toxin concentrated?
In specific organisms or environments, depending on the type of toxin.
p.21
Shellfish Poisoning Types
What is Domoic acid associated with?
Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) and Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) symptoms, along with memory loss, confusion, and disorientation.
p.50
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What are the solubility and stability characteristics of ciguatoxins?
They are lipid soluble and heat stable.
p.4
Microbial Toxins and Their Origins
What are the symptoms of food poisoning?
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain.
p.40
Natural Toxins in Seafood
What is tetrodotoxin named after?
The puffer fish family, Tetraodontiformes.
p.2
Classification of Natural Toxins
What is an algal toxin?
A toxin produced by algae.
p.92
Ochratoxin A and Its Impact
What is the relationship between OTA concentration and Aflatoxin B concentration in food?
OTA concentration is normally inversely related to Aflatoxin B concentration.
p.55
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What do voltage-dependent sodium channels do in cell membranes?
They open in response to changes in voltage.
p.17
Microbial Toxins and Their Origins
What organism synthesizes Azaspiracids?
Dinoflagellate Azadinium spinosum.
p.37
Natural Toxins in Seafood
What is the relationship between marine biotoxins and fish productivity?
Marine biotoxins are spreading in areas of high fish productivity.
p.83
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
What are common hosts for mold species?
Humans, animals, and plants.
p.95
Trichothecenes and Their Toxicity
What is a primary effect of trichothecenes on cells?
They are strong inhibitors of protein synthesis.
p.33
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
Which cyanobacteria are associated with Saxitoxin production?
Some species of cyanobacteria.
p.77
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What are common symptoms of Staphylococcal food poisoning?
Nausea, violent vomiting, abdominal cramping, with or without diarrhea.
p.15
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
Where can information about Dinophysis sp be found?
On the website wwz.ifremer.fr.
p.77
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
How long does Staphylococcal food poisoning typically last?
Typically resolves itself within 1 to 2 days.
p.99
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
What is the significance of studying ZEA in food items?
To assess its impact on food safety and human health.
p.9
Shellfish Poisoning Types
What are the types of shellfish poisoning?
Paralytic (PSP), Neurotoxic (NSP), Amnesic (ASP), and Diarrhetic (DSP).
p.86
Classification of Natural Toxins
What volume and issue is referenced in the document?
Volume 120, Supplement 1.
p.24
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
Which organisms are primarily affected by Domoic acid?
Marine mammals and birds, as well as humans who consume contaminated shellfish.
p.91
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
What is Ochratoxin A (OTA)?
A mycotoxin produced by fungi of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium.
p.51
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What is the chemical structure of ciguatoxins characterized by?
A complex polycyclic structure with multiple functional groups.
p.17
Microbial Toxins and Their Origins
Which other dinoflagellate is suspected to be involved in Azaspiracid synthesis?
Protoperidinium crassipes.
p.70
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What are common symptoms of Botulinum toxin exposure?
Vomiting, diarrhea, gastric distension, difficulty in urinating, and other neurological symptoms.
p.23
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What is the role of GLU in the synaptic cleft?
To interact with cell surface receptors.
p.85
Aflatoxins and Their Health Risks
What was the result of purifying the parent toxin from the fungal extract?
It led to the identification of metabolites.
p.13
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What are Tetrodotoxins?
They are potent neurotoxins found in some marine organisms.
p.4
Microbial Toxins and Their Origins
What is a common cause of food poisoning in Hong Kong?
Contaminated food or water.
p.84
Aflatoxins and Their Health Risks
What organisms produce aflatoxins?
Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus.
p.86
Classification of Natural Toxins
What does the 'S28' refer to in the context of the journal?
It likely refers to a specific article or section within the supplement.
p.1
Natural Toxins in Seafood
What is the focus of Food Toxicology?
The study of natural toxins in food and their effects on health.
p.9
Natural Toxins in Seafood
Are the toxins in shellfish synthesized by them?
No, they are not synthesized by shellfish.
p.6
Shellfish Poisoning Types
Which type of food was commonly associated with food poisoning outbreaks in Hong Kong in 2009?
Raw or undercooked shellfish.
p.33
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
Which algal species are known to produce Saxitoxin?
Dinoflagellates such as Alexandrium spp., Gymnodinium spp., and Pyrodinium spp.
p.60
Natural Toxins in Seafood
In which publication was the study on ciguatoxin published?
Environmental Reviews, 2016, 24(2): 144.
p.94
Trichothecenes and Their Toxicity
What are Trichothecenes?
A vast group of over 200 fungal metabolites.
p.77
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What is Staphylococcal food poisoning (SFP)?
An intoxication resulting from consuming foods containing sufficient amounts of one or more preformed enterotoxins.
p.17
Shellfish Poisoning Types
What trend followed the 1995 outbreak in the Netherlands?
Many other cases followed in Europe, mostly caused by consumption of mussels from Ireland.
p.91
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
Why is Ochratoxin A significant in food safety?
It is one of the most abundant food mycotoxins.
p.32
Shellfish Poisoning Types
What is Saxitoxin originally isolated from?
The butter clam, Saxidomus giganteus.
p.81
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What common food preparation mistake leads to Bacillus cereus toxin production?
Cooking rice for insufficient time and temperature, then improperly refrigerating it.
p.88
Aflatoxins and Their Health Risks
Which animal species are known to be immune to aflatoxins?
No animal species are known to be immune.
p.80
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
Why is it unclear which toxin causes symptoms after Bacillus cereus ingestion?
Because the toxin degrades in stomach enzymes.
p.13
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What is Domoic acid (DA) known for?
It is an algal toxin that can cause amnesic shellfish poisoning.
p.10
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What do algal toxins do in the ecosystem?
They accumulate in organisms as they move up the food chain.
p.21
Natural Toxins in Seafood
What species of mussels were involved in the Domoic acid incident?
Mussels (Mytilus edulis) from Prince Edward Island, Canada.
p.97
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
Which fungi produce Zearalenone?
Fusarium graminearum and other Fusarium species.
p.66
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What is the primary function of voltage-gated sodium channels?
To allow sodium ions to flow into the cell in response to changes in membrane potential.
p.4
Microbial Toxins and Their Origins
What preventive measures can be taken to avoid food poisoning?
Proper food handling, cooking, and storage.
p.33
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What is Saxitoxin?
A toxin produced by various algal species.
p.66
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What triggers the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels?
Changes in the membrane potential.
p.2
Classification of Natural Toxins
What is a mycotoxin?
A toxin produced by fungi.
p.92
Ochratoxin A and Its Impact
Which areas of the brain does OTA have a strong affinity for?
The cerebellum and hippocampus.
p.51
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
How do ciguatoxins affect the human body?
They disrupt sodium channel function, leading to neurological symptoms.
p.71
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
How can botulinum toxin be absorbed into the body?
Through the eyes, mucous membranes, respiratory tract, or non-intact skin.
p.30
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What is one effect of brevetoxin binding to VSSCs?
Lowering of the activation potential to more negative values.
p.79
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
Under what conditions does Bacillus cereus toxin typically occur?
When food is not fully cooked and then improperly stored.
p.83
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
What type of diseases can mold species cause in plants?
Fungal infections that can lead to crop damage.
p.74
Classification of Natural Toxins
Why is pH important in food classification?
It determines the acidity level, affecting preservation and safety.
p.32
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
How does Saxitoxin affect sodium channels?
It binds directly in the pore of the channel protein, occluding the opening and preventing sodium ion flow.
p.88
Aflatoxins and Their Health Risks
What health issues can aflatoxins cause?
Immune suppression, cancer, liver necrosis, and even death.
p.13
Shellfish Poisoning Types
What is Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning?
A type of poisoning caused by brevetoxins.
p.10
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What is biomagnification?
The process by which algal toxins accumulate up the food chain.
p.72
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What is the trend in the number of botulinum toxin outbreaks?
The number of outbreaks is decreasing rapidly.
p.19
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What do azaspiracids inhibit?
hERG voltage-gated potassium channels.
p.29
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What are brevetoxins?
Neurotoxins produced by dinoflagellates such as Karenia brevis and Chattonella sp.
p.61
Microbial Toxins and Their Origins
What is biomagnification?
The process by which the concentration of toxins increases in organisms at each successive level of the food web.
p.37
Natural Toxins in Seafood
What are marine biotoxins?
Toxins that spread rapidly across coastal seas.
p.60
Natural Toxins in Seafood
How does the ciguatoxin profile vary in real food samples?
It differs in different seafood species.
p.83
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
What is the relationship between mold species and disease?
Certain mold species can cause diseases in various hosts.
p.3
Microbial Toxins and Their Origins
What environmental conditions are targeted to prevent toxin production?
Conditions that do not favor the growth of microorganisms.
p.82
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
What are mycotoxins?
Toxins produced by fungi (molds) that can kill bacteria and are toxic to humans and animals.
p.91
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
What are some common food sources of Ochratoxin A?
Cocoa beans, coffee beans, cassava flour, cereals, fish, peanuts, dried fruits, wine, poultry eggs, and milk.
p.28
Shellfish Poisoning Types
What is a key method for managing shellfish safety?
Regular monitoring of toxin levels.
p.90
Microbial Toxins and Their Origins
How does climate change affect contamination risk?
It increases the range and contamination risk.
p.77
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What is the onset time for symptoms of Staphylococcal food poisoning?
Rapid onset, typically within 2 to 8 hours.
p.1
Aflatoxins and Their Health Risks
What is one potential health risk associated with natural toxins?
Food poisoning or long-term health effects.
p.96
Aflatoxins and Their Health Risks
What significant event occurred in the Soviet Union related to T-2 toxin?
Around 100,000 people died due to alimentary toxic aleukia.
p.102
Classification of Natural Toxins
What is the title of the further reading material mentioned?
Natural Toxicants in Food.
p.79
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
How resistant are Bacillus cereus enterotoxins?
Highly resistant to heat and acid.
p.32
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What type of blocker is Saxitoxin?
A reversible blocker of voltage-gated sodium channels.
p.98
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
What reproductive issues can Zearalenone cause?
Infertility, abortion, and breeding problems.
p.13
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What are Azaspiracids (AZAs)?
They are a group of algal toxins.
p.13
Shellfish Poisoning Types
What is Paralytic shellfish poisoning?
A poisoning caused by saxitoxins from harmful algae.
p.78
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
How can food be contaminated by Staphylococcus aureus?
Through handlers with unclean hands or nose.
p.20
Natural Toxins in Seafood
What is the focus of the study mentioned in the document?
Food additives and contaminants.
p.2
Classification of Natural Toxins
What is a bacterial toxin?
A toxin produced by bacteria.
p.92
Ochratoxin A and Its Impact
Is Ochratoxin A (OTA) considered carcinogenic?
Yes, OTA is potentially carcinogenic and can mildly promote tumors in the liver and kidney in mice studies.
p.61
Microbial Toxins and Their Origins
Is there a consistent trend of biomagnification in the food web?
No, there is some trend, but variability is huge.
p.95
Trichothecenes and Their Toxicity
What are trichothecenes?
Small, amphipathic molecules that can move passively across cell membranes.
p.37
Natural Toxins in Seafood
What can we expect regarding marine biotoxins in seafood in the coming years?
An increase in these toxins in our seafood.
p.95
Trichothecenes and Their Toxicity
Which cells are most affected by trichothecenes?
The most actively dividing cells, such as those in the GI tract, skin, lymphoid tissues, and erythroid cells.
p.95
Trichothecenes and Their Toxicity
What type of damage do trichothecenes cause to mucosal tissues?
Necrosis of mucosa in contact with the toxins.
p.75
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What is an enterotoxin?
A protein exotoxin released by a microorganism that targets the intestines.
p.98
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
What is known about the effects of Zearalenone on humans?
Not much is known about its effects on humans.
p.75
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
Which enterotoxins have yet to be tested?
SE l J, SE l K, SE l M to SE l P, SE l U, SE l U2, and SE l V.
p.53
Shellfish Poisoning Types
Which hospitals treated subjects affected by ciguatera poisoning in Guangdong Province?
Hospitals in Zhongshan, Shantou, and Foshan.
p.13
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What are Pectenotoxins (PTXs)?
They are algal toxins that can cause poisoning.
p.13
Shellfish Poisoning Types
What is Amnesic shellfish poisoning?
A condition caused by domoic acid from algal blooms.
p.17
Shellfish Poisoning Types
What was the significant outbreak related to Azaspiracids in 1995?
An outbreak in the Netherlands after consumption of mussels from Killary Harbour in Ireland.
p.6
Natural Toxins in Seafood
What was a significant cause of food poisoning in Hong Kong in 2009?
Consumption of contaminated seafood.
p.19
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
Why is stereochemistry important in the toxicity of azaspiracids?
The first synthesis attempt had the right structure but wrong stereochemistry, resulting in no activity.
p.84
Aflatoxins and Their Health Risks
What is the significance of Aspergillus flavus toxins?
They are harmful and can contaminate food supplies.
p.28
Shellfish Poisoning Types
Why is regular monitoring of shellfish toxins important?
To ensure food safety and prevent shellfish poisoning.
p.14
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What is the mechanism of action of Okadaic Acid and Dinophysistoxins?
They are selective and potent phosphatase inhibitors.
p.30
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What do brevetoxins bind to in voltage sensitive sodium channels?
Site 5 on the alpha-subunit of VSSCs.
p.96
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
What are trichothecenes?
A group of mycotoxins reported throughout the world.
p.92
Ochratoxin A and Its Impact
What potential health issues may be linked to OTA due to its effects on the brain?
Neural degeneration, possibly linked to Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases.
p.51
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What type of organisms produce ciguatoxins?
Certain species of dinoflagellates.
p.102
Classification of Natural Toxins
What is the title of the reference from Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition?
Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 16 (Suppl 1) (2007) 95 - 101.
p.82
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
What is Ochratoxin A (OTA)?
A type of mycotoxin produced by molds.
p.71
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What effect does botulinum toxin have on acetylcholine release?
It decreases the release of acetylcholine.
p.82
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
What are Trichothecenes?
A group of mycotoxins produced by certain fungi.
p.79
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What happens if food containing Bacillus cereus spores is not refrigerated?
The spores can germinate.
p.85
Aflatoxins and Their Health Risks
What was discovered from the fungal culture extract related to Turkey X disease?
It was able to create syndromes of Turkey X disease.
p.13
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What is Cylindrospermopsin?
It is an algal toxin that can be harmful to humans.
p.13
Shellfish Poisoning Types
What is Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning?
A type of poisoning caused by certain algal toxins.
p.79
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What are the symptoms of Bacillus cereus toxin?
Severe nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.
p.87
Aflatoxins and Their Health Risks
How are aflatoxins classified?
By fluorescence emitted under UV light and mobility during thin-layer chromatography.
p.66
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What happens when voltage-gated sodium channels are blocked?
It can prevent action potentials and disrupt neuronal signaling.
p.71
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
Where does botulinum toxin bind in the body?
To high-affinity recognition sites on cholinergic nerve terminals.
p.30
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What is a consequence of the persistent activation of VSSCs due to brevetoxins?
Repetitive firing of nerves.
p.23
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What happens to vesicles containing GLU after Ca2+ mobilization?
They move to the membrane surface.
p.87
Aflatoxins and Their Health Risks
Can aflatoxins be produced in milk?
Yes, aflatoxins can be produced in milk.
p.71
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What is the result of the neuromuscular blocking effect caused by botulinum toxin?
Inability to contract muscle, leading to paralysis.
p.96
Aflatoxins and Their Health Risks
What is alimentary toxic aleukia?
A condition caused by T-2 toxin from contaminated cereals.
p.80
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What are the main toxins produced by Bacillus cereus?
Hemolysin BL (Hbl), nonhemolytic enterotoxin (Nhe), and cytotoxin K (CytK).
p.98
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
Is Zearalenone heat stable?
Yes, it is heat stable and can be found worldwide.
p.88
Aflatoxins and Their Health Risks
How do aflatoxins interact with DNA?
They generate epoxides and intercalate into DNA.
p.94
Trichothecenes and Their Toxicity
Which genera are known to produce Trichothecenes?
Fusarium, Myrothecium, Spicellum, Stachybotrys, Cephalosporium, Trichoderma, and Trichothecium.
p.51
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
In what type of environments are ciguatoxins commonly found?
In tropical and subtropical marine environments.
p.32
Shellfish Poisoning Types
What major event did Saxitoxin cause in 1987?
A major epidemic of paralytic shellfish poisoning in Guatemala.
p.94
Trichothecenes and Their Toxicity
What is the significance of the epoxide at the C12, 13 position in Trichothecenes?
It is important to their toxicity.
p.80
Bacterial Toxins and Their Mechanisms
What symptoms are associated with Bacillus cereus toxin ingestion?
Diarrhea and gastrointestinal pain.
p.98
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
What happens to the toxicity of Zearalenone in its alcohol metabolites?
The toxicity remains in their alcohol metabolites.
p.13
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What are Brevetoxins (BTXs)?
They are algal toxins associated with neurotoxic shellfish poisoning.
p.28
Shellfish Poisoning Types
What types of toxins are commonly monitored in shellfish?
Marine biotoxins such as saxitoxin and domoic acid.
p.90
Microbial Toxins and Their Origins
What is the title of the scientific report discussing climate change and contamination risk?
Range and contamination risk increase under climate change.
p.98
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
What is Zearalenone (ZEN) known for in farm animals?
Exhibits strong oestrogen-like activity in animals such as cattle, sheep, and pigs.
p.15
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What is the significance of dinoflagellates like Prorocentrum minimum and Dinophysis sp?
They are known to produce harmful algal blooms and toxins.
p.88
Aflatoxins and Their Health Risks
What are aflatoxins known for?
They are highly toxic and carcinogenic substances.
p.13
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What are Yessotoxins (YTXs)?
They are a type of algal toxin.
p.99
Mycotoxins and Their Sources
What is the primary concern regarding ZEA in food?
It is a mycotoxin that can have health risks.
p.88
Aflatoxins and Their Health Risks
What are aflatoxin M1 and M2?
They are metabolites of aflatoxins but still toxic.
p.13
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What are Maitotoxins (MTXs)?
They are potent algal toxins.
p.13
Algal Toxins and Their Effects
What are Ciguatoxins (CTXs)?
They are toxins produced by certain algae that can cause ciguatera fish poisoning.
