Cancer is a group of diseases characterized by uncontrolled or abnormal cell division.
Gerontology is the scientific study of the process and problems associated with aging.
Microvilli greatly increase the surface area of epithelial cells, speeding the absorption of digested food in the small intestine.
Four phases: prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II.
Necrosis is a pathological type of cell death resulting from tissue injury, causing cells to swell, burst, and spill their cytoplasm.
Mitosis produces 2 cells, while meiosis produces 4 cells.
Two cells, each with a haploid number of chromosomes (n).
A centromere is the region of a chromosome where the two sister chromatids are held together and where the spindle fibers attach during cell division.
During Anaphase II, sister chromatids are separated and pulled to opposite poles of the cell.
No, because the left arm contains pure water and the right arm contains a solution that is less than 100% water.
Synapsis is the pairing off of two sister chromatids of each pair of homologous chromosomes.
A tetrad.
10 times more likely.
Glucose forms irreversible cross-links between adjacent protein molecules, leading to the stiffening and loss of elasticity in tissues.
Geriatrics is the specialized branch of medicine that deals with the medical problems and care of elderly persons.
The disc shape of a red blood cell gives it a large surface area that enhances its ability to pass oxygen to other cells.
Each resulting cell contains the haploid number of chromosomes.
Chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate.
It probably would not be able to undergo cell division.
Cells vary considerably in size, measured in micrometers (μm). The largest cell, a single oocyte, has a diameter of about 140 μm, while a red blood cell has a diameter of 8 μm.
Mutations in suppressor genes or normal stem cells developing into cancerous stem cells.
A multistep process of cancer development in which as many as 10 distinct mutations may have to accumulate in a cell before it becomes cancerous.
Free radicals produce oxidative damage in lipids, proteins, or nucleic acids by 'stealing' an electron, leading to effects like wrinkled skin, stiff joints, and hardened arteries.
Mitosis produces cells with 46 chromosomes (diploid), while meiosis produces cells with 23 chromosomes (haploid).
Both involve the separation of sister chromatids.
Sister chromatids are two identical copies of a single chromosome that are connected by a centromere.
Crossing-over results in genetic recombination and the formation of new combinations of genes.
60-90%
A mutation in the p53 gene can lead to the development of carcinoma.
Antioxidants are substances like vitamin E, vitamin C, beta-carotene, zinc, and selenium that inhibit the formation of free radicals.
By stimulating abnormal proliferation of cells, such as the human papillomavirus (HPV) causing cervical cancer.
During Metaphase II, chromosomes align along the metaphase plate in each of the two haploid cells.
Genetic recombination increases genetic diversity, which is important for evolution and adaptation.
Genes that control the ability of cancer cells to undergo metastasis.
Cytoplasm consists of all the cellular contents within the plasma membrane except for the nucleus, including cytosol and organelles.
Sperm cells have a long whiplike tail (flagellum) for locomotion, as they are the only male cells required to move considerable distances.
It stimulates the proliferation of mutated cells, enhances their survival, promotes angiogenesis, and contributes to invasion and metastasis of cancer cells.
Telomeres shorten with each cycle of cell division, eventually leading to the loss of functional chromosomal material, which contributes to aging.
Mitosis has 1 division, while meiosis has 2 divisions.
Homologous chromosomes separate, but sister chromatids remain together.
The starting cell has two pairs of homologous chromosomes.
The metaphase plate is an imaginary plane where chromosomes align during metaphase of cell division.
During Telophase II, the two haploid cells divide again, resulting in four genetically different haploid gametes.
Hair loss, vomiting, nausea, and susceptibility to infection.
Proteins and lipids.
The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments that provide a structural framework for the cell and are responsible for cell movements.
The Golgi complex consists of flattened sacs called cisterns that modify, sort, and package proteins for transport to different cellular destinations.
Crossing-over is the exchange of parts between nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes.
Tetrads formed by homologous pairs of chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate.
Changes in cell-identity markers at the surface of cells.
Mitosis occurs in somatic cells, while meiosis occurs in gametes.
Cancer-causing genes that can transform a normal cell into a cancerous cell when inappropriately activated.
Gametes with a haploid number of chromosomes (not replicated).
During Metaphase I, homologous chromosomes pair up and align along the metaphase plate.
During Telophase I, the cell divides into two haploid cells, each with half the number of chromosomes.
Phagocytosis is the ingestion of solid particles, and some white blood cells destroy microbes that enter the body in this way.
The loss of tissue differentiation and function characteristic of most malignancies.
The study of all of an organism’s proteins to identify them and determine their three-dimensional structures.
It acts as a receptor.
Active transport is the movement of substances across the membrane against their concentration gradient using energy from ATP hydrolysis or a concentration gradient.
The binding of particles to a plasma membrane receptor.
A double-stranded molecule of DNA wrapped twice around a core of eight histones (proteins).
Normal, programmed cell death.
Four haploid gametes that are genetically unlike each other and genetically unlike the starting cell that produced them.
In micrometers (μm), where one micrometer equals 10^-6 meters.
Skeletal muscle cells and nerve cells.
Nerve cells have long extensions that permit them to conduct nerve impulses over great distances.
Four haploid gametes that are genetically different from the original diploid starting cell.
Surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.
Homologous chromosomes pair up to form tetrads and crossing-over occurs.
Chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate.
Centrioles help in the formation of the spindle fibers that separate chromosomes during cell division.
Cytosol is the fluid portion of cytoplasm, containing water, ions, glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, proteins, lipids, ATP, and waste products.
Alteration in the size, shape, and organization of cells due to chronic irritation or inflammation.
The transformation of one type of cell into another.
Diffusion is the movement of molecules or ions from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration until equilibrium is reached.
Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion is the movement of solutes like glucose across the membrane by binding to a specific carrier protein that changes shape.
In secondary active transport, hydrolysis of ATP is used indirectly to drive the activity of symporter or antiporter proteins, while in primary active transport, ATP directly powers the pump protein.
Exons are regions of DNA that code for protein synthesis, while introns are regions that do not.
Aging is accompanied by a progressive alteration of the body’s homeostatic adaptive responses, producing observable changes in structure and function and increasing vulnerability to environmental stress and disease.
Angiogenesis is the growth of new networks of blood vessels, often triggered by malignant cells to supply the tumor with nutrients.
The use of viruses to kill cancer cells by specifically targeting them without affecting healthy cells.
A model describing the plasma membrane as a mosaic of proteins floating in a lipid bilayer.
The components of the cytoskeleton include microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules.
Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed vesicles containing digestive enzymes, functioning in the digestion of worn-out organelles, host cells, and extracellular digestion.
Proteasomes contain proteases that degrade unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins by cutting them into small peptides.
In endocytosis, vesicles detach from the plasma membrane to move materials into a cell; in exocytosis, vesicles merge with the plasma membrane to move materials out of a cell.
DNA replication occurs.
The mRNA base sequence UCGA.
In late anaphase.
Two haploid cells divide to form four haploid cells.
A normal process accompanied by progressive alteration of the body’s homeostatic adaptive responses.
The total genetic information carried in a cell or an organism.
The nucleotide sequence of mRNA specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein.
Cell division that replaces cells or adds new ones, involving mitosis and cytokinesis.
An orderly sequence of events in which a somatic cell duplicates its contents and divides in two, consisting of interphase and a mitotic phase.
Cells can be round, oval, flat, cube-shaped, column-shaped, elongated, star-shaped, cylindrical, or disc-shaped, and their shape is related to their function in the body.
The members of each homologous pair of chromosomes separate and are pulled to opposite poles of the cell.
Apoptosis is a normal type of cell death that removes unneeded cells and regulates the number of cells in a tissue.
By administering drugs that cause the death of cancerous cells.
A malignant tumor can undergo metastasis and spread to other parts of the body, while a benign tumor does not metastasize.
Somatic cells with a diploid number of chromosomes (not replicated).
Because it is not a single disease and the cells in a single tumor population rarely behave the same way.
In transcytosis, vesicles undergo endocytosis on one side of a cell, move across the cell, and undergo exocytosis on the opposite side.
A decrease in the size of cells, leading to a decrease in the size of the affected tissue or organ.
The glycocalyx is the sugary coat on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane, composed of the carbohydrate portions of membrane glycolipids and glycoproteins.
In passive processes, substances move down their concentration gradient using kinetic energy, while in active processes, cellular energy is used to move substances against their concentration gradient.
Yes, insulin promotes the insertion of glucose transporter (GluT) in the plasma membrane, increasing cellular glucose uptake by carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion.
The cell replicates its organelles and cytosolic components, and centrosome replication begins.
The splitting of the chromosomes and the distribution of two identical sets of chromosomes into separate and equal nuclei.
A cell can remain alive and functioning without dividing, grow and divide, or die.
So that each of the new cells will have a complete genome.
From 8 μm to 140 μm.
Chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis of the liver are believed to be responsible for about 80% of liver cancers.
Environmental agents that produce cancer by inducing mutations in the DNA base sequence of a gene.
Carcinomas are malignant tumors arising from epithelial cells, while melanomas are cancerous growths of melanocytes, the skin cells that produce melanin.
Crossing-over increases genetic variation by exchanging genetic material between nonsister chromatids, resulting in new combinations of alleles in the gametes.
Endocytosis is the selective uptake of large molecules and particles (ligands) that bind to specific receptors in membrane areas called clathrin-coated pits.
A layer formed by glycoproteins and glycolipids on the extracellular surface of cells.
An increase in the number of cells of a tissue due to an increase in the frequency of cell division.
Peroxisomes contain oxidases that oxidize amino acids, fatty acids, and toxic substances, producing hydrogen peroxide which is destroyed by catalase.
The concentration of K+ is higher in the cytosol of body cells.
In isotonic solutions, red blood cells maintain their shape; in hypotonic solutions, they swell and undergo hemolysis; in hypertonic solutions, they shrink and undergo crenation.
The entry face receives and modifies proteins from rough ER; the exit face modifies, sorts, and packages molecules for transport to other destinations.
Enzymes and other proteins are synthesized, and centrosome replication is completed.
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Specific cyclin-dependent protein kinases and cyclins.
They are associated with a wide variety of diseases and disorders.
23 chromosomes, making them haploid (n).
46 chromosomes, 23 inherited from each parent.
By transcribing and translating the genetic information contained in DNA.
It is modified.
Translation begins at the start codon and ends at the stop codon.
In Anaphase I of meiosis, homologous chromosomes separate, while in Anaphase of mitosis, sister chromatids separate.
During Prophase I, tetrads are formed by the synapsis of sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes, and crossing-over occurs between nonsister chromatids.
Crossing-over is the exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes, occurring during Prophase I of meiosis.
During Anaphase I, homologous chromosomes are separated and pulled to opposite poles of the cell.
During Prophase II, the chromosomes condense again, and a new spindle apparatus forms in each of the two haploid cells.
Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, while meiosis II separates sister chromatids.
A cell.
The ER is a network of membranes forming flattened sacs or tubules; rough ER is studded with ribosomes for protein synthesis, while smooth ER synthesizes fatty acids and steroids and detoxifies substances.
Mitochondria consist of a smooth external membrane, an internal membrane with cristae, and a fluid-filled matrix, producing most of a cell’s ATP and playing a role in apoptosis.
Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion is the movement of solutes down their concentration gradient through membrane channels, such as ion channels for K+, Cl-, Na+, or Ca2+.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis and phagocytosis involve receptor proteins, while bulk-phase endocytosis does not.
They are synthesized separately in the nucleolus within the nucleus and assembled in the cytoplasm.
A complex of DNA, proteins, and some RNA.
During the S phase of interphase.
Sperm cells.
A double nuclear envelope, nuclear pores, nucleoli, and genes arranged on chromosomes.
The genetic information in the sequence of base triplets in DNA serves as a template for copying the information into a complementary sequence of codons in messenger RNA.
A cell between divisions that is carrying on every life process except division, consisting of three phases: G1, S, and G2.
Leukemia is a cancer of blood-forming organs characterized by rapid growth of abnormal leukocytes (white blood cells).
The cleavage furrow is the indentation that begins to form as the cell membrane pinches in during cytokinesis, leading to cell division.
Bulk-phase endocytosis, or pinocytosis, is the ingestion of extracellular fluid where a vesicle surrounds the fluid to take it into the cell.
They act as channels, carriers, receptors, enzymes, and linkers.
Ribosomes consist of two subunits made in the nucleus composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins, serving as sites of protein synthesis.
Selective permeability allows some substances to pass more readily than others, being permeable to nonpolar, uncharged molecules and impermeable to ions and charged or polar molecules.
Fever increases body temperature, which increases the rates of all diffusion processes.
Symporters move two substances in the same direction across the membrane, while antiporters move two substances in opposite directions.
Rough ER has attached ribosomes and synthesizes proteins for export; smooth ER does not have ribosomes and is associated with lipid synthesis and other metabolic reactions.
Each new organism is the result of the union of two different gametes, one from each parent.
The process that produces haploid gametes, consisting of two successive nuclear divisions called meiosis I and meiosis II.
Specific amino acids attach to tRNA, and anticodons of tRNA bind to codons of mRNA, bringing specific amino acids into position on a growing polypeptide.
A tetrad is a group of four chromatids formed by the synapsis of homologous chromosomes during Prophase I of meiosis.
The plasma membrane, the cytoplasm, and the nucleus.
Organelles are specialized structures within the cell that have characteristic shapes and specific functions.
The centrosome consists of the pericentriolar matrix and a pair of centrioles, organizing microtubules in nondividing cells and the mitotic spindle in dividing cells.
An increase in the size of cells without cell division.
The plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus.
ATP adds a phosphate group to the pump protein, changing its three-dimensional shape and transferring energy to power the pump.
Centrioles, cilia, and flagella.
Some are secreted from the cell by exocytosis, some are incorporated into the plasma membrane, and some occupy storage vesicles that become lysosomes.
Digestion of worn-out organelles by lysosomes.
The process where a cleavage furrow forms at the cell’s metaphase plate and progresses inward, pinching the cell to form two separate portions of cytoplasm.
During embryological development and continues throughout the lifetime of an organism.
Cilia and flagella are motile projections of the cell surface formed by basal bodies; cilia move fluid along the cell surface, while flagella move an entire cell.
A substance introduced into circulation by tumor cells that indicates the presence and type of a tumor.
Membrane fluidity is greater with more double bonds in fatty acid tails; cholesterol makes the bilayer stronger but less fluid at normal body temperature.
Simple diffusion is the movement of nonpolar, hydrophobic molecules and small polar, uncharged molecules through the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane.
A 2% solution of NaCl will cause crenation of RBCs because it is hypertonic.
Transferrin, vitamins, and hormones.
Cilia move fluids across cell surfaces; flagella move an entire cell.
The set of rules that relates the base triplet sequences of DNA to the corresponding codons of RNA and the amino acids they specify.
The process by which cells reproduce themselves, consisting of nuclear division (mitosis or meiosis) and cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis).
Nonpolar, hydrophobic molecules (oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen gases; fatty acids; steroids; and fat-soluble vitamins) and small, uncharged polar molecules (water, urea, and small alcohols).
Osmosis is the net movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration.
The sodium-potassium pump, or Na+-K+ ATPase, is a primary active transport pump that moves Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the cell against their concentration gradients.
They increase the surface area available for chemical reactions and contain some of the enzymes needed for ATP production.
Proteins.
During anaphase I of meiosis, the paired chromatids are held together by a centromere and do not separate; during anaphase of mitosis, the paired chromatids separate and the centromeres split.
A cell’s shape is related to its function.
Genetically programmed cessation of cell division, buildup of free radicals, and an intensified autoimmune response.
The P site holds the tRNA attached to the growing polypeptide; the A site holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid to be added to the growing polypeptide.
It releases the completed protein from the final tRNA.
Homologous chromosomes undergo synapsis and crossing-over, resulting in two haploid cells that are genetically unique.
Cell division that results in the production of gametes (sperm and ova), consisting of meiosis and cytokinesis.
23 pairs, making them diploid (2n).
The DNA molecules, or chromosomes, replicate themselves so that identical sets of chromosomes can be passed on to the next generation of cells.
