p.6
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
What are greetings and small talk used for?
Affective purposes, conveying little or no information.
p.15
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What are the global prospects for languages spoken by ethnic minorities in the 21st century?
Languages spoken by ethnic minorities face significant pressure and risk of loss.
p.24
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
How is Regional Colloquial Arabic typically used?
Used at home, work, and in most spoken interactions, but rarely written.
p.15
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What causes speakers not to learn their Heritage Languages (HLs)?
Political factors, social pressures, economic factors, social status, inter-marriage, school influence, and children's lack of motivation.
p.26
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What are short phrases or single words 'tags' in L1 inserted into L2 called?
Profile: short phrases or single words 'tags' in L1.
p.1
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What is the significance of recognizing a variety as a 'language'?
It may privilege its use in areas like government, education, law, and commerce.
p.1
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What rights do speakers of 'languages' have compared to speakers of 'dialects'?
Speakers of 'languages' may have linguistic rights, while speakers of 'dialects' almost never have similar rights.
p.6
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
What is one frequent use of language mentioned in the text?
For affective purposes, to initiate, maintain, and strengthen social relations.
p.28
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What factors can influence differences in attitudes towards code-switching?
Size of the population, speakers' abilities in L1 and L2, and speakers' age.
p.24
Dialect Characteristics and Identification
What is the difference between Classical Arabic and Regional Colloquial Arabic?
Classical Arabic is the written form that remains unchanged, while Regional Colloquial Arabic varies in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.
p.14
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What is the current status of the Ainu language?
The Ainu language has almost totally disappeared, with very little chance of revival.
p.24
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What languages were major in the Ottoman Empire?
Turkish, Persian, and Arabic.
p.4
Dialect Characteristics and Identification
What are the main differences between dialects and standard forms of language?
Differences occur in accent (pronunciation), vocabulary, and grammar.
p.26
Dialect Characteristics and Identification
What distinguishes borrowing from one-word code-switching?
If a word from one language is embedded in a sentence of another language.
p.4
Dialect Characteristics and Identification
What are isoglosses?
Boundary lines marking the distribution of dialect variables.
p.19
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What activities are involved in language revitalization?
Teaching and spreading new knowledge of endangered languages among heritage language communities.
p.26
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
Why do speakers often code-switch for stylistic reasons?
To have fun and vary the style of their speech.
p.20
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What contributed to the success of the Miami language revitalization?
A detailed description of Miami in a PhD dissertation and a coordinating center at Miami University.
p.22
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What is the significance of increasing positive reactions to language loss?
It provides new hope and inspiration for revitalization efforts.
p.14
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What pressure do the Ainu face regarding their heritage language?
They are pressured to give up their heritage language and speak Japanese.
p.10
Language Planning and Official Languages
What language developed as the official language of Indonesia?
Malay, developed as 'Indonesian'.
p.4
Dialect Characteristics and Identification
What geographical association do dialects typically have?
Dialects are commonly associated with a single geographical area or region.
p.14
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
How can foreign-imported official languages signal a new local national identity?
Through their added local properties, they may come to represent a new local national identity.
p.1
Definition and Importance of Language vs. Dialect
What are the two linguistic theories that define 'language'?
The Invariant System Hypothesis and the Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis.
p.27
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What is code-switching (CS) often used for in communication?
To emphasize what speakers are saying, sometimes repeating words in both L1 and L2.
p.20
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What role did Ben Yehuda play in Hebrew revitalization?
He was a dedicated language activist who helped revive Hebrew in Israel.
p.2
Invariant System Hypothesis and Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis
What does mutual intelligibility imply about two varieties of speech?
If two speakers can understand each other, they are considered varieties of the same language.
p.28
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
How can manipulating unmarked language use express emotions?
It can express disapproval, social distance, and even anger.
p.14
Language Planning and Official Languages
What are the common policy types for language recognition?
1. A single national official language; 2. A single national language plus one or more official languages; 3. Only an official language with no national language.
p.14
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What is the significance of selecting an ethnically-neutral official language?
It helps avoid inequality and conflict in diverse populations.
p.26
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What is Level 3 code-switching characterized by?
Switches between L1 to L2 made at clause boundaries.
p.4
Dialect Characteristics and Identification
How do non-linguists often group varieties of speech?
Non-linguists may group together varieties that are not mutually intelligible and call them dialects of a single language.
p.20
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What is the significance of Hebrew in language revitalization?
Hebrew was revived after being unused as a spoken language for 2,000 years.
p.1
Invariant System Hypothesis and Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis
What is a major problem with the Invariant System Hypothesis?
No two individuals use an identical set of rules and vocabulary when they speak.
p.4
Dialect Characteristics and Identification
What geographical features typically clarify dialect boundaries?
Major geographical features that separate neighboring populations.
p.19
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What organizations are helping endangered language communities?
The Endangered Language Foundation, Summer Institute of Linguistics, Yunnan Minority Languages Institute, and USC Problems Without Passports program.
p.27
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What is a common pattern of divergence in code-switching?
Speaker 1 uses L1, Speaker 2 replies in L2, and they continue alternating languages.
p.28
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What is an example of upwards shifting in language use?
Switching to show education.
p.15
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What factors can speed up language loss?
Political factors, social pressures, economic factors, social status, inter-marriage, school influence, and lack of motivation.
p.10
Language Planning and Official Languages
What are the four advantages of using Indonesian as an official language?
1. Ethnically neutral, used as a lingua franca. 2. Already used in schools and popular novels. 3. An indigenous language of Indonesia. 4. Used by the independence movement, giving it prestige.
p.19
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What are two major initiatives to combat language endangerment?
Language documentation and language revitalization.
p.1
Dialect Characteristics and Identification
What is an idiolect?
The unique, personalized way that each individual uses language.
p.27
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
How do young Puerto Ricans in New York use code-switching?
They code-switch in different ways to signal their specific origins within New York.
p.4
Dialect Characteristics and Identification
What are the three kinds of non-regional dialects?
Religious dialects, where people with different religions speak the same language in different ways.
p.20
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What was the expectation for the Maori language post-WWII?
It was expected to die out due to urbanization and the need for English.
p.3
Invariant System Hypothesis and Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis
What is the classification of the many varieties of speech in Chinese?
Classed as dialects of a single language, 'Chinese'.
p.15
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What are the two common types of minority groups?
Immigrant minorities and Indigenous minorities.
p.24
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What was Greece's situation before 1832?
Greece was part of the Ottoman Empire for 400 years.
p.14
Language Planning and Official Languages
What is an example of a country with a single national language and one or more official languages?
Paraguay or Malaysia at independence.
p.19
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What socio-economic improvements are mentioned for the Oroqen people?
Better health care, educational opportunities, and affirmative action with reserved university entrance places.
p.19
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What demographic change is affecting the Oroqen community?
More Han Chinese are settling in the area and marrying Oroqen people due to special privileges.
p.26
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What is intra-sentential code-switching?
Switches made within clauses, often multiple times, also known as 'code-mixing'.
p.26
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What is insertional code-switching?
Words from L2 are inserted into the L1 base.
p.4
Dialect Characteristics and Identification
What causes fuzzy dialect boundaries?
Some isoglosses may not line up fully with others.
p.19
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
How can endangered languages be taught in communities?
As a subject, through bilingual education, and summer language camps.
p.27
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What is 'convergence' in the context of code-switching?
Making aspects of our behavior more like that of others we are interacting with.
p.2
Invariant System Hypothesis and Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis
Which languages are examples of mutually intelligible varieties classified as different languages?
Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian; Hindi and Urdu.
p.3
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What happened in 1991 regarding Yugoslavia?
Yugoslavia disintegrated into separate states, each declaring its own language.
p.28
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What is an example of downwards shifting in language use?
Switching to stress solidarity.
p.24
Definition and Importance of Language vs. Dialect
What key historical moment fixed the way Arabic is written?
The writing of the Koran in the 7th century.
p.15
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What is the typical language shift pattern among immigrant groups?
A shift from Heritage Language (HL) to Local Majority Language (LML) across three generations.
p.14
Language Planning and Official Languages
In which countries is a single national official language common?
Japan, Italy, Somalia, Iceland, Vietnam, Thailand.
p.14
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
What happens to a 'foreign' official language over time?
It may become indigenized, incorporating local words and pronunciations.
p.19
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What is the take-home message regarding language maintenance?
Bilingualism can help balance socio-economic improvement with the maintenance of heritage languages (HLs).
p.20
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
How was Hebrew modernized during its revitalization?
By creating large numbers of new words and introducing it into schools.
p.27
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
What distinguishes speakers in Hong Kong from those in mainland China?
Speakers in Hong Kong code-switch between Cantonese and English, while those in mainland China primarily use Cantonese.
p.4
Dialect Characteristics and Identification
What is a dialect continuum?
A phenomenon where dialects blend into each other, making it hard to identify where one ends and another begins.
p.27
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What does 'divergence' mean in linguistic terms?
The opposite of linguistic accommodation and convergence, signaling unfriendliness and social distance.
p.25
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What does extended diglossia refer to in Paraguay?
H = Spanish, L = Guaraní.
p.8
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What is an advantage of having multiple national languages (NLs)?
It avoids inter-ethnic/regional discontent/conflict.
p.25
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What is Level 1 of Code-Switching?
Sentence-bound CS, where each sentence is entirely in one language.
p.28
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What is a 'marked language'?
A language that is not usually used in a specific situation, making it unexpected.
p.22
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What is happening in many EL communities regarding their HLs?
They are revitalizing their HLs.
p.24
Invariant System Hypothesis and Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis
What influences the spoken form of Arabic?
Contact with speakers of other languages in different regions.
p.10
Language Planning and Official Languages
What functions should national languages fulfill according to the text?
1. Unifying. 2. Separatist. 3. Prestige. 4. Frame-of-reference.
p.19
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What is a consequence of Han Chinese settling in Oroqen areas?
Causes language shift and loss of the Oroqen language.
p.4
Dialect Characteristics and Identification
Who are dialect geographers?
Linguists who map out where different forms of pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar occur.
p.26
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What is alternational code-switching?
Both L1 and L2 appear in equal amounts, making it difficult to identify a base language.
p.1
Invariant System Hypothesis and Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis
What does the Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis focus on?
Mutual understanding or lack of it between speakers.
p.2
Invariant System Hypothesis and Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis
What is a counter-example to the Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis?
Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian are mutually intelligible but classified as different languages.
p.2
Invariant System Hypothesis and Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis
What is an example of varieties that are mutually unintelligible but classified as dialects of the same language?
Mandarin, Cantonese, Taiwanese, and Shanghainese in Chinese.
p.2
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
How did the political situation affect the classification of Hindi and Urdu?
Political events led to their recognition as separate official languages in India post-independence.
p.25
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What is Code-Switching (CS)?
Switching between different languages in a single conversation or within a single sentence.
p.6
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
How do greetings and small talk behave in different cultures?
They are often culture-specific and may sound odd when translated into other language settings.
p.22
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What positive outcomes can documentation and revitalization work create?
Positive new attitudes, pride, and enthusiasm among EL communities.
p.15
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What is a 'border-change minority'?
Minorities affected by changes in state borders due to international conflict.
p.15
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What factors help in the transmission and maintenance of Heritage Languages (HLs)?
Size and concentration of minority groups, arrival of new monolingual immigrants, media availability in HLs, and isolated communities.
p.4
Dialect Characteristics and Identification
What is a dialect in relation to language?
A dialect is a variant form of some other form of speech called a language.
p.26
Dialect Characteristics and Identification
What is a clause?
A part of a sentence with its own subject and verb.
p.20
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What are 'language nests' in the context of language revitalization?
Pre-school programs designed to immerse children in a language.
p.1
Invariant System Hypothesis and Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis
What does the Invariant System Hypothesis propose?
A language consists of a set of words (vocabulary) and a set of rules of grammar and pronunciation used uniformly by a population.
p.27
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
How does code-switching express identity-related reasons?
It stresses solidarity, closeness with others, and membership in the same group.
p.20
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What is the current status of Hebrew in everyday life?
Hebrew is now used in all domains of everyday life.
p.2
Invariant System Hypothesis and Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis
What happens if two speakers cannot understand each other?
They are classified as varieties of different languages.
p.25
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What are the two forms of diglossia that emerged in Greece?
Khatarevousa (H) for formal communication and Dhimotiki (L) for informal speech.
p.2
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What was the significance of Urdu in Pakistan after 1947?
Urdu was declared the national language as a symbol of Islamic identity.
p.8
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What is a disadvantage of having multiple national languages (NLs)?
It weakens the potential unifying force of having a single NL.
p.28
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What are the special effects of switching from an unmarked language to a marked language?
It can stress solidarity or show education.
p.22
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
Do speakers of ELs need to abandon their HLs to learn another major language?
No, they can become bilingual.
p.24
Language Planning and Official Languages
What is Modern Standard Arabic?
A form of Arabic that has expanded vocabulary for science, technology, and modern life, blending with Classical Arabic.
p.24
Language Planning and Official Languages
What did Greece aim to establish after gaining independence?
A form of Greek as a new national language.
p.14
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
What are examples of distinctive local forms of foreign languages?
Ghanaian English and Abidjanais French.
p.4
Dialect Characteristics and Identification
What do linguists assume about the intelligibility of dialects?
Linguists assume that the dialects of a language are all mutually intelligible to a large degree.
p.19
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What is the goal of language documentation?
To establish good descriptions and records of endangered languages (ELs) before they disappear.
p.1
Invariant System Hypothesis and Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis
What conclusion can be drawn if a single, invariant set of rules defines 'English'?
Most people in the US and UK would NOT be considered speakers of 'English'.
p.20
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What is the Miami tribe's current language status?
Miami is now revived and used as a second language in many interactions.
p.20
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What historical event negatively impacted the Maori language?
The British enforced English-only policies in schools starting in 1867.
p.8
Language Planning and Official Languages
Which variety of Japanese was selected as the model in 1916?
The Tokyo variety (Yamanote area).
p.8
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What is a challenge in choosing a national language (NL) or official language (OL) in countries with complex populations?
The choice of NL/OL is not easy.
p.3
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What was General Franco's stance on languages in Spain?
Only recognized Castilian Spanish as a language, classifying others as dialects.
p.3
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What did India's post-independence national census declare about regional languages?
Many were declared as just dialects of Hindi for political reasons.
p.16
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What is the Generation 4 Effect?
It refers to increasing prosperity and economic stability leading to a desire to reconnect with heritage backgrounds.
p.9
Language Planning and Official Languages
Which languages are examples of national-official languages?
Japanese, Polish, French (in France).
p.9
Case Studies of Language Policies in Various Countries
What was the outcome of the language conflict in East Pakistan?
It led to a new language movement, an independence movement, and ultimately civil war, resulting in East Pakistan becoming Bangladesh in 1971.
p.23
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What types of writing are typically done in the H variety?
Literature and formal writing, while L is used for informal contexts like cartoons and social media.
p.7
Language Planning and Official Languages
What is the primary function of a National Language (NL)?
To represent the nation and its projected national identity.
p.10
Language Planning and Official Languages
What is a notable aspect of Singapore's language policy?
Success with a multi-lingual official language policy.
p.26
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What are the three major factors that cause people to code-switch?
[1] Imbalance in the knowledge of L1 and L2, [2] Stylistic reasons, [3] Identity-related reasons.
p.25
Language Planning and Official Languages
What model was proposed for the new National Language (NL) in Greece?
Colloquial Athens’ Greek.
p.3
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
What unites Han Chinese people despite the variety of dialects?
A long, shared cultural history, literature, and the same writing system.
p.3
Language Planning and Official Languages
What change occurred regarding regional varieties of languages in Spain?
All regional varieties are now referred to as languages.
p.18
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What are some causes of language endangerment?
Economic factors, social factors, globalization, urbanization, and colonization.
p.9
Case Studies of Language Policies in Various Countries
What was the language policy in Sri Lanka after independence in 1948?
Sinhala was made the unique official language, leading to the banning of Tamil media and subsequent riots.
p.23
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
How is the L variety typically used in social contexts?
It is used with family and friends and in informal settings.
p.7
Language Planning and Official Languages
What is the primary purpose of Official Languages (OLs)?
To assist people in their daily activities.
p.17
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What does 'Capacity' refer to in the context of language transmission?
Parents often don’t help children learn Hindi.
p.13
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What happened in Nepal in 1990?
The old regime collapsed, leading to a resurgence of pride in ethno-linguistic diversity.
p.21
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What happened to the Hawaiian language after the overthrow of the monarchy?
Hawaiian was forbidden from schools and there was pressure to use English.
p.21
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What does the success of Hawaiian language revitalization demonstrate?
It shows what a dedicated community can achieve.
p.25
Language Planning and Official Languages
What was one approach to creating a new 'pure' form of Greek?
Purging all foreign, borrowed words.
p.27
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What is the 'unmarked language' in a multilingual society?
The language conventionally used in a specific situation.
p.8
Language Planning and Official Languages
How was the standardized Japanese variety spread?
Through mass education and media.
p.3
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
Why do governments often wish to recognize fewer languages?
To downplay diversity and offer linguistic rights to fewer groups.
p.11
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What is the ethnic composition of the population mentioned?
75% Chinese, 17% Malay, 6% South Asian, 2% other.
p.18
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What impact did European settlers have on the indigenous population in the Americas?
They brought diseases that caused 90% of the indigenous population to die in 200 years.
p.16
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What does 'Capacity' refer to in the COD framework?
The abilities that individuals develop in the heritage language.
p.16
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What does 'Desire' refer to in the COD framework?
The eagerness that individuals have to use the heritage language, including positive attitudes towards speaking it.
p.11
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What is an example of a new meaning given to an old word in Hausa?
Jakaadaa changed from 'important palace messenger' to 'ambassador'.
p.7
Language Planning and Official Languages
How do National Languages (NLs) unify populations?
By fostering a common national spirit.
p.7
Language Planning and Official Languages
What does Corpus Planning involve?
Developing vocabulary, creating dictionaries, standardizing pronunciations, describing grammatical rules, and deciding on writing systems.
p.13
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What slogan encapsulated the king of Nepal's vision for national identity?
'One country, one dress, one language.'
p.13
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What was the policy towards the Ainu regarding the Japanese language and clothing?
The Ainu were forbidden to learn and speak Japanese or wear Japanese clothing.
p.8
Language Planning and Official Languages
What was the common form of Japanese before modern times?
There was no common form of Japanese.
p.3
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
How is Ryuukyuan classified in relation to Japanese?
Declared to be a dialect of Japanese, despite being mutually unintelligible.
p.18
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What proportion of the world's languages are considered endangered if defined as having 20,000 speakers or less?
2/3 of the world's languages.
p.18
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
What is a consequence of language death?
A massive loss of global cultural diversity.
p.23
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What is diglossia?
Switching between two distinct varieties of the same language used in different areas of life.
p.9
Language Planning and Official Languages
What is a national-official language?
A single language that serves both NL and OL functions.
p.9
Case Studies of Language Policies in Various Countries
What was the language situation in Pakistan after its formation in 1947?
West Pakistan declared Urdu as the NL, while East Pakistan wanted Bengali as the NL.
p.11
Language Planning and Official Languages
What is 'Corpus Planning' in the context of language?
The expansion of vocabulary and its symbolic effects.
p.11
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
What is the difference in word sourcing between Chinese and Japanese?
Chinese favors internal sources, while modern Japanese often borrows words.
p.12
Linguistic protectionism
What actions did the French Academy take regarding English loanwords?
Aimed to block new English loans and imposed fines for government workers using them.
p.5
Dialect Characteristics and Identification
What are the dialects of Iraqi Arabic spoken in 20th century Baghdad?
Muslim, Christian, and Jewish dialects.
p.13
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What was the public demand in Nepal after the regime collapse?
Widespread demands for linguistic and cultural pluralism to be made national policy.
p.13
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
What changes occurred in the 18th century regarding the Ainu?
The Ainu further north began to adopt Russian clothing, names, and religion.
p.21
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What is Hawaiian Creole English, also known as 'Pidgin'?
A mixture of English, Hawaiian, Japanese, and Chinese developed due to poorly trained English teachers.
p.20
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What happened in the 1980s regarding the Maori language?
A new revival movement for the Maori language emerged.
p.2
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What historical event led to the unification of Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin?
The 1946 unification of Balkan states as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
p.3
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What did Japanese leadership emphasize about Japan's culture?
That Japan is a mono-ethnic, mono-cultural, mono-lingual nation.
p.18
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
What is one reason to be concerned about the loss of languages?
Every group's language is an expression of its cultural identity.
p.16
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What does the Capacity-Opportunity-Desire (COD) framework assess?
It assesses the prospects for successful heritage language maintenance.
p.16
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
Why is Pahari stable and well-maintained in the UK?
Due to strong capacity, opportunity, and desire among speakers.
p.16
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What demographic is the fastest-growing minority group in the USA?
South Asians, second after Mexican-Americans.
p.12
Linguistic protectionism
What are borrowed words or loanwords replaced with in North Korea?
New native or internally-sourced words.
p.7
Language Planning and Official Languages
What is the third step in creating new National Languages/Official Languages?
Promotion of new NLs/OLs to spread knowledge.
p.17
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What does 'moribund' mean in the context of languages?
A language not being transmitted well to younger generations.
p.12
Linguistic assimilation and the suppression of languages
What was the impact of Japanese rule on Taiwanese languages from 1895 to 1945?
There was pressure to speak Japanese and suppression of Chinese and other Taiwanese languages.
p.13
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
What lesson can be drawn from the experiences of Taiwan and Nepal regarding national identity?
Forceful repression of language and culture is not an effective way to stimulate a new national identity.
p.21
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What question arises regarding the revitalization of endangered languages?
Will it now be possible to save all endangered languages?
p.25
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What are the general attitudes towards the High (H) and Low (L) languages?
Negative attitudes to L (not respectable for writing/religion) and positive attitudes to L (best for expressing feelings).
p.8
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What is an advantage of using a non-indigenous official language (OL)?
It is ethnically neutral and already standardized.
p.3
Dialect Characteristics and Identification
What is a dialect?
A variety not recognized as a distinct language, related to an officially-recognized language.
p.11
Language Planning and Official Languages
What are the official languages (OLs) listed?
Mandarin, Malay, Tamil, English.
p.23
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What is extended diglossia?
A situation where two distinct languages pattern in typical H and L ways.
p.11
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What are the three ways to create new words through internal sourcing?
1) Give a new meaning to an old word, 2) Promote regional dialect words, 3) Make new combinations of existing words.
p.12
Linguistic protectionism
What was the effect of language changes in North Korea during the 1960s?
North Korean became almost unintelligible to South Koreans in the 1970s.
p.12
Government interference with NL/OL writing systems
How can control of writing systems affect communication?
It can stop communication and be used for political purposes.
p.12
Linguistic assimilation and the suppression of languages
What was the result of harsh conditions during Japanese rule in Taiwan?
A new all-Taiwanese, anti-Japanese identity emerged.
p.5
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What factors influence shifts in language style?
Participants, setting, topic, and function of speech.
p.13
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What was Japan's response to the Ainu adopting Russian customs?
Japan decided to make the Ainu living in Hokkaido into Japanese people, encouraging them to assimilate.
p.21
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
What significant change occurred in the 1970s regarding Hawaiian culture?
A new interest in Hawaiian culture led to the promotion of the Hawaiian language in group activities.
p.8
Language Planning and Official Languages
What is an advantage of establishing multiple official languages (OLs)?
All segments of a population have equal linguistic advantages.
p.18
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
How can different languages contribute to our knowledge?
They can provide knowledge about the physical world, such as local plant life and medicines.
p.9
Language Planning and Official Languages
What are the characteristics of Official Languages (OLs)?
Utilitarian and non-symbolic.
p.18
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What change occurred for the Oroqen people in NW China starting in the 1950s?
The Chinese government improved the living conditions of minority groups.
p.11
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
How has government policy on multilingualism impacted society?
It has helped create social stability in a mixed population.
p.9
Case Studies of Language Policies in Various Countries
What were the consequences of making Sinhala the unique official language in Sri Lanka?
Civil war, terrorism, and ongoing unresolved tensions.
p.7
Language Planning and Official Languages
What are Official Languages (OLs) specified for?
Areas of life/activity and geographical areas.
p.5
Dialect Characteristics and Identification
How do social groups influence language use?
People from different social groups speak the same language in different ways.
p.5
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
How does solidarity affect language use?
More informal language is used with friends/family, while formal styles are used with strangers.
p.21
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
How many language nest centers were there in New Zealand by the 1990s?
800 language nest centers.
p.21
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What was the outcome of the official ban on Hawaiian in schools?
The ban was lifted in 1986, allowing Hawaiian to be reintroduced to schools.
p.25
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What is Level 2 of Code-Switching also known as?
Extra-sentential CS or 'tag-insertion'.
p.8
Language Planning and Official Languages
What is a common characteristic of countries with no national language (NL)?
The official language (OL) is often a major world language, not indigenous.
p.8
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What is a disadvantage of using a non-indigenous official language (OL)?
It may have negative colonial associations and can be hard to learn.
p.23
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What are the four distinguishing properties of diglossia?
1. Two distinct varieties are used by speakers. 2. H and L varieties have different functions. 3. H and L are learned at different times and environments. 4. H is never used in informal conversation.
p.16
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What percentage of people from Pakistan in the UK come from the Mirpur area?
75% or approximately 600,000 people.
p.7
Language Planning and Official Languages
What is the first step in Language Planning (LP)?
Status Planning, which involves giving special roles to certain languages/varieties.
p.7
Language Planning and Official Languages
What is the final step in the process of establishing new NLs/OLs?
Winning acceptance by encouraging pride and respect for the new language.
p.12
Government interference with NL/OL writing systems
What was the Soviet Union's policy regarding writing systems in the 1930s?
All languages spoken in the Soviet Union were ordered to switch to the Cyrillic alphabet.
p.12
Linguistic assimilation and the suppression of languages
How did learning Japanese affect Chinese/Taiwanese groups during Japanese rule?
It helped them communicate with each other and form a unified opposition.
p.5
Dialect Characteristics and Identification
What is an example of ethnic dialects?
Early Italian American immigrants and African American Vernacular English.
p.13
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
Who are the Ainu?
An ethnic group living in Hokkaido and other islands north of Japan.
p.3
Definition and Importance of Language vs. Dialect
What does Max Weinreich's saying about languages and dialects imply?
A language is a dialect with an army and a navy.
p.9
Language Planning and Official Languages
What are the characteristics of National Languages (NLs)?
Symbolic, representative, and binding.
p.16
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
Why do parents believe heritage languages (HLs) are important?
To teach children about their family's cultural identity and ethnic traditions, potential employment value, and family cohesion.
p.23
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What is code-switching?
Switching between two or more different languages in a single conversation.
p.23
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What is triglossia?
A situation where there are three varieties or languages in H/L relations to each other.
p.12
Linguistic protectionism
What is linguistic protectionism?
A policy that mandates new words should only be created from internal resources.
p.12
Linguistic assimilation and the suppression of languages
What is the goal of linguistic assimilation by governments?
To create a unified, strong national identity through cultural and linguistic assimilation.
p.5
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What is a 'register' in language?
A type of speech used in a specific activity or job.
p.5
Cultural Identity and Language Preservation
What is referential communication?
Language used to convey information, such as in news programs and scientific discussions.
p.21
Language Planning and Official Languages
What support did the New Zealand government provide for the Maori language?
Financial support for Maori TV and radio programming, and the establishment of a Maori Language Commission.
p.8
Language Planning and Official Languages
What is a disadvantage of having multiple official languages (OLs)?
It is very expensive as all official materials must be produced in multiple languages.
p.23
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What is the primary function of the H variety in diglossia?
It is used in formal settings such as religious activities, political discussions, and academic writing.
p.16
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What does 'Opportunity' refer to in the COD framework?
The chances that speakers have to use the heritage language outside the home in daily life.
p.23
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
In what contexts is the H variety predominantly used?
In religious activities, political discussions, newspapers, and technical writing.
p.11
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What does language purification involve?
Purging words of foreign origin to make the national language 'pure' again.
p.7
Language Planning and Official Languages
What is the difference between a National Language and an Official Language?
A National Language symbolizes national unity, while an Official Language is used for government business.
p.17
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What does 'Opportunity' refer to regarding Hindi usage?
Hindi is not widely used in South Asian communities; English is the lingua franca.
p.5
Diglossia and Code-Switching Concepts
What are styles and registers in language?
Different ways speakers use their language, including formal and informal styles.
p.13
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What was the focus of Japanese nationalism in the 19th-20th century?
Emphasis on uniform national culture, ethnicity, and language.
p.21
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What was the impact of language nests on Maori education?
Maori teaching spread to high schools, creating a new generation of speakers.
p.17
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What are the main reasons for poor transmission of Hindi to G2 and G3?
Capacity, Opportunity, and Desire.
p.17
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What is the common belief about languages with many speakers?
They are considered 'safe'.
p.13
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What was the goal of the 1960 king of Nepal regarding national identity?
To develop a mono-cultural, unilingual national identity.
p.5
Socio-Political Factors Influencing Language Recognition
What role does power play in language styles?
It may cause special styles of language when speaking to authority figures.
p.13
Language Shift and Maintenance in Minority Groups
What happened in the late 18th century regarding Japan's assimilation policy?
Japan stopped its assimilation policy as the Russian 'threat' receded.
p.21
Language Endangerment and Revitalization Efforts
What are language nests in New Zealand?
Pre-school centers where elders spoke Maori with children.
