Energy is the capacity to do work or produce change, existing in various forms such as kinetic, potential, thermal, and chemical.
1) Remove α-amino group 2) Breakdown & process carbon skeleton
Lipolysis
Pancreatic amylase hydrolyzes dextrins to maltose and glucose.
The body’s immune system destroys pancreatic beta cells, which produce insulin.
Hypometabolism is the physiological state of having a decreased rate of metabolic activity.
A series of reactions that occurs inside mitochondria to break fatty acid molecules into 2-carbon fragments.
Aerobic metabolism or cellular respiration.
Free fatty acids serve as an important energy source when glucose supplies are limited.
The TCA cycle and electron transport.
Yes, often symptoms are not severe or may be absent, allowing hyperglycaemia to persist for a long time before diagnosis.
Beta-oxidation
The main pathways of metabolism include catabolism and anabolism, which involve the breakdown of molecules for energy and the synthesis of compounds, respectively.
Anabolic reactions use smaller molecules and energy to build larger molecules.
Hypometabolism can lead to serious health issues.
Stress can significantly affect metabolic processes, leading to changes in energy expenditure and nutrient utilization.
Glycolysis
Yes, there are several types of glucose transporters, including GLUT1, GLUT2, and GLUT4, each with specific roles and tissue distributions.
Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources such as lactate, some amino acids, and glycerol.
Metabolism is the combination of chemical reactions that build and break down materials as organisms carry out their life processes.
Insulin increases the rates of glycolysis, glycogenesis, lipogenesis, and protein synthesis.
Pyruvate
Insulin promotes the translocation of GLUT4 transporters to the cell membrane, enhancing glucose uptake, especially in muscle and adipose tissues.
Chylomicrons transport triglycerides from the intestines to the liver and a few other sites.
The Cori cycle occurs when anaerobic conditions occur in active muscle and glycolysis produces lactate.
Glycogenolysis occurs in muscle tissues to provide energy for muscle contractions.
Ammonia is toxic to cells because it can disrupt cellular functions.
Glycolysis, TCA cycle, and electron transport.
Metabolic disorders are conditions that disrupt normal metabolism, affecting how the body converts food into energy.
Insulin resistance, where cells do not use insulin properly.
Catabolic reactions are those that break down large, complex molecules to provide energy and smaller molecules.
Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) or juvenile-onset diabetes.
Essential amino acids can be made by plants and bacteria, and we obtain these amino acids by eating plants.
Hypermetabolism is metabolism at an increased or excessive rate.
There are 11 non-essential amino acids synthesized in our body.
The primary function of carbohydrate metabolism is to convert carbohydrates into glucose, which is used as a source of energy for the body.
VLDL transports triglycerides from the liver to tissues.
The effects include long-term damage, dysfunction, and failure of various organs.
Lipid metabolism refers to the processes through which lipids are synthesized and degraded in the body, including the breakdown of fats for energy and the synthesis of fatty acids.
To store glucose by converting glucose to glycogen.
LDL transports cholesterol from the liver to tissues.
1) Transamination 2) Oxidative deamination
Glucose primarily enters cells through facilitated diffusion via glucose transporters (GLUT).
Each step generates molecules of acetyl-CoA and NADH.
Glycogenolysis primarily takes place in muscle and liver tissues.
The focus is on the production and expenditure of energy in living systems, metabolism and metabolome, hypermetabolism and hypometabolism, metabolic disorders, food and metabolisms, and stress and metabolism.
Liver cells, cardiac muscle cells, and skeletal muscle fibers metabolize free fatty acids.
Anaerobic
Type 1 diabetes may account for 5% to 10% of all diagnosed cases of diabetes.
IDL carries triglycerides back to the liver.
Autoimmune, genetic, and environmental factors.
Gluconeogenesis is required when glycogen stores are depleted.
Triglycerides are the main form of stored fat in the body and are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids for energy during metabolism.
Aminopeptidase from cells in the small intestine Brush Zone.
Gestational Diabetes is a type of diabetes that develops during pregnancy and usually resolves after giving birth.
Poor sleep can disrupt metabolic processes and hormone regulation, leading to weight gain.
No, catabolism and anabolism are interconnected and one cannot occur without the other.
Hypometabolism can be a result of hypothyroidism.
Insulin decreases the rates of glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and lipolysis.
Characteristic symptoms include thirst, polyuria, blurring of vision, and weight loss.
In response to insulin, cells (liver, muscle, RBC, etc.) take up glucose from blood.
It usually strikes children and young adults, but can occur at any age.
Hypermetabolism can be a sign of various diseases such as hyperthyroidism.
Additional glucose is converted to body fat.
About 90% to 95%.
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins and are essential for protein synthesis and various metabolic processes.
36 molecules of ATP.
Insulin facilitates the uptake of glucose by cells and promotes the storage of glucose as glycogen in the liver and muscles.
Much more efficient.
Children and adolescents.
The primary function of the urea cycle is to convert ammonia, which is toxic at high levels, into urea for excretion from the body.
Fever increases metabolic rate as the body fights off infection.
Catabolism and Anabolism.
In the mouth, where salivary amylase breaks down polysaccharides to smaller polysaccharides, maltose, and some glucose.
Anabolism is the metabolic pathway that synthesizes complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring energy.
The Cori cycle is the flow of lactate and glucose between the muscles and the liver.
Catabolic pathways provide the energy and building blocks for anabolic pathways, creating a balance in metabolism.
During deamination, amine groups form ammonia when removed.
By breaking down carbohydrates in small steps that release energy to convert ADP to ATP.
Hypermetabolism refers to an increased rate of metabolism, while hypometabolism refers to a decreased rate of metabolism.
No, there are no protein hydrolyzing enzymes in saliva.
Oxygen.
Hydrolysis (10% of peptide bonds) and denaturation by pepsin enzyme and HCl acid produce short chain polypeptides.
Lots of ATP.
After pregnancy, 5% to 10% of women with gestational diabetes are found to have type 2 diabetes.
MODY stands for Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young, a genetic form of diabetes that typically occurs in adolescents or young adults.
Exercise increases metabolic rate through enhanced energy expenditure.
IDL carries triglycerides back to the liver.
Sympathetic stimulation can increase metabolic rate by activating the body's fight-or-flight response.
Metabolome is defined as the total number of metabolites present within an organism, cell, or tissue.
They work together to sustain life.
Diabetes mellitus is a group of diseases characterized by high levels of blood glucose due to defects in insulin production, insulin action, or both.
The synthesis of glycogen from glucose.
They are hydrolyzed to monosaccharides, mostly glucose, which enter the bloodstream for transport to the cells.
It leaves a shorter carbon chain bound to coenzyme A.
Chronic stress can lead to insulin resistance and elevated blood glucose levels, contributing to metabolic disorders.
Glycolysis intermediates like 3-phosphoglycerate and pyruvate, and Krebs cycle intermediates like oxaloacetate and α-ketoglutarate are used.
The two main processes involved in carbohydrate metabolism are glycolysis and gluconeogenesis.
Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is defined as any degree of glucose intolerance with onset or first recognition during pregnancy.
Glucose is easily converted into fat because acetyl CoA is an intermediate in glucose catabolism and the starting molecule for the synthesis of fatty acids.
Treatment is required to normalize maternal blood glucose levels to avoid complications in the infant.
There are seven reactions in gluconeogenesis that are the reverse of glycolysis and use the same enzymes.
Fatty acids undergo beta-oxidation in the mitochondria, where they are broken down into acetyl-CoA, which then enters the citric acid cycle to produce ATP.
Exercise, daily activities, age, sleep, climate, fever, malnutrition, and hormonal effects.
The main substrates of the urea cycle are ammonia and carbon dioxide.
Male sex hormones can increase metabolism by 10-15%.
Catabolism is the metabolic pathway that breaks down molecules to produce energy.
Glycogenolysis is the process of breaking down stored glycogen to glucose when the body requires it.
Transamination is the process that takes off amine groups from amino acids and forms glutamate.
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water
Protein metabolism refers to the process by which proteins are synthesized, broken down, and utilized in the body.
In the stomach.
In the mitochondria.
They undergo lipogenesis to form triglycerides for storage.
Gluconeogenesis happens in the liver.
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP in the process.
Glycolysis
HDL carries cholesterol from tissues to the liver.
Food provides the necessary nutrients and energy that fuel metabolic processes in the body.
Secondary Diabetes Mellitus refers to diabetes that is caused by other medical conditions or medications, rather than being a primary form of diabetes.
VLDL transports triglycerides from the liver to tissues.
Thyroid hormones significantly increase metabolic rate.
TCA cycle
When high levels of glucose-6-phosphate are formed in the first reaction of glycolysis.
Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) or adult-onset diabetes.
The main stages of protein metabolism include protein synthesis (anabolism) and protein degradation (catabolism).
Cortisol and adrenaline are key hormones released during stress that influence metabolism by increasing glucose availability and altering fat metabolism.
2 ATP
Stress can lead to increased lipolysis and altered lipid profiles, potentially resulting in higher levels of circulating free fatty acids.
The main types of Diabetes Mellitus are Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, Gestational Diabetes, and other types such as LADA, MODY, and Secondary Diabetes Mellitus.
It provides enough energy to power muscles for short periods.
Some bacteria that are entirely anaerobic.
Lipoproteins are lipid-protein complexes that mediate lipid transport and utilization.
Extreme temperatures can increase metabolic rate as the body works to maintain its core temperature.
Growth hormones can increase metabolism by 15-20%.
Lactate moves through the bloodstream to the liver, where it is oxidized back to pyruvate.
In the liver, glycogenolysis helps to restore the glucose supply in the blood.
Pyruvate is converted to glucose in the liver, which is then carried back to the muscles.
Lipids serve several functions, including energy storage, structural components of cell membranes, signaling molecules, and insulation.
Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase.
Nitrogen balance indicates the state of protein metabolism; a positive balance suggests growth or recovery, while a negative balance indicates muscle wasting or malnutrition.
They produce 'free' amino acids.
Metabolism generally slows down with age due to changes in body composition and hormonal levels.
LDL transports cholesterol from the liver to tissues.
Facilitated diffusion does not require energy and relies on concentration gradients, while active transport requires energy to move glucose against its gradient.
The most apparent sign of hypermetabolism is an abnormally high intake of calories followed by continuous weight loss.
Ammonia is detoxified by being fed into the urea cycle, where urea is generated.
Internal symptoms of hypermetabolism include peripheral insulin resistance, elevated catabolism of protein, carbohydrates, and triglycerides, and a negative nitrogen balance in the body.
The pancreas gradually loses its ability to produce insulin.
Gluconeogenesis is the metabolic process of synthesizing glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors, primarily in the liver.
Stress can alter metabolic processes, potentially leading to changes in energy expenditure and nutrient utilization.
Chylomicrons transport triglycerides from the intestines to the liver and a few other sites.
The urea cycle is a key process in protein metabolism, as it helps to eliminate excess nitrogen produced from the breakdown of amino acids.
The body utilizes proteins for growth, repair of tissues, enzyme production, and as a source of energy when carbohydrates and fats are insufficient.
LADA stands for Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults, which is a form of diabetes that shares characteristics of both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes.
Women who have had gestational diabetes have a 20% to 50% chance of developing diabetes in the next 5 - 10 years.
Lipoproteins contain large insoluble glycerides and cholesterol.
The end products of the urea cycle are urea and ornithine.
Stress can lead to increased protein catabolism, which may affect muscle mass and overall protein balance in the body.
Older age, obesity, family history of diabetes, history of gestational diabetes, impaired glucose metabolism, and physical inactivity.
Cholesterol is essential for the formation of cell membranes, synthesis of steroid hormones, and production of bile acids, playing a crucial role in lipid metabolism.
The liver is primarily responsible for the urea cycle.
Malnutrition can lead to a decreased metabolic rate and impaired energy utilization.
HDL carries cholesterol from tissues back to the liver.
