What are the two main branches of geology?
Physical Geology and Historical Geology.
p.1
Major Features of Ocean Floor and Continents
What major role did the Colorado River play?
It played a major role in creating the Grand Canyon.
p.1
Catastrophism vs. Uniformitarianism
What is Uniformitarianism?
The idea that physical, chemical, and biological laws operating today have also operated in the geologic past.
What is the average depth of the global ocean?
3800 meters (12,500 feet).
p.4
Rock Cycle and Types of Rocks
What are minerals?
Chemical compounds (or sometimes single elements) with their own composition and physical properties.
p.5
Earth's Internal Structure
What is the Canadian Shield known for?
An expansive region of ancient Precambrian rocks, some over 4 billion years old, recently scoured by Ice Age glaciers.
p.4
Major Features of Ocean Floor and Continents
What are the two principal divisions of Earth's surface?
Ocean basins and continents.
p.3
Earth's Internal Structure
What are the two main types of Earth's crust?
Oceanic crust and Continental crust.
p.5
Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics
What did Edward Bullard contribute to geology?
He constructed a map piecing together the edges of the continental shelves of South America and Africa.
p.5
Scientific Revolution and Continental Drift Hypothesis
Who is Alfred Wegener?
A German meteorologist and geophysicist known for his continental drift hypothesis.
p.3
Earth's Internal Structure
What is the asthenosphere?
A weaker layer beneath the lithosphere, characterized by partial melting.
p.5
Tectonic Processes and Mountain Formation
What are the Himalayas known for?
They are the highest mountains on Earth and are geologically young.
p.4
Major Features of Ocean Floor and Continents
What is a continental margin?
The portion of the seafloor adjacent to major landmasses.
p.2
Earth's Spheres: Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, Geosphere, Biosphere
What is the geosphere?
The largest of Earth's four spheres.
p.2
Earth's Spheres: Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, Geosphere, Biosphere
What is the hydrologic cycle?
The unending circulation of Earth's water among the hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere, and geosphere.
p.2
Earth's Internal Structure
What is the circumference of Earth?
Slightly more than 40,000 km (nearly 25,000 mi).
p.3
Earth's Internal Structure
What is the average thickness of the continental crust?
About 35 kilometers (22 miles).
p.4
Rock Cycle and Types of Rocks
What is magma?
Molten rock that forms deep beneath Earth's surface.
p.3
Earth's Internal Structure
What is the composition of the Earth's core?
An Iron-Nickel alloy with minor amounts of oxygen, silicon, and sulfur.
p.5
Earth's Internal Structure
What do stable platforms consist of?
Highly deformed rocks covered by a thin veneer of sedimentary rocks, nearly horizontal except where warped.
How old are the rocks in the Grand Canyon?
More than 1.5 billion years.
p.2
Tectonic Processes and Mountain Formation
What is the rate of erosional processes lowering the North American continent?
About 3 cm (1.2 in) per 1000 years.
p.5
Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics
What was Pangaea?
A single supercontinent consisting of all Earth's landmasses that existed about 200 million years ago.
p.1
Scientific Revolution and Continental Drift Hypothesis
What is a hypothesis in scientific terms?
A tentative (untested) explanation.
p.4
Rock Cycle and Types of Rocks
What does texture refer to in geology?
The size, shape, and/or arrangement of constituent minerals.
p.5
Tectonic Processes and Mountain Formation
What are the Appalachians?
Old mountains in North America.
p.3
Earth's Internal Structure
What is the density of basalt compared to water?
Three times that of water.
p.2
Earth's Spheres: Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, Geosphere, Biosphere
How deep can bacteria thrive in rocks?
Up to 4 kilometers (2.5 miles).
p.2
Earth's Spheres: Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, Geosphere, Biosphere
What is soil?
A thin veneer of material at Earth's surface that supports plant growth.
p.3
Earth's Internal Structure
How thick is the oceanic crust?
7 kilometers (4.5 miles).
p.4
Rock Cycle and Types of Rocks
What is crystallization?
The process where magma cools and solidifies.
p.4
Major Features of Ocean Floor and Continents
What is the average depth of ocean basins?
About 3.8 kilometers (2.4 miles) below sea level.
p.5
Scientific Revolution and Continental Drift Hypothesis
What is the significance of Mesosaurus in paleontology?
A small aquatic freshwater reptile whose fossil remains are limited to rocks of Permian age.
p.4
Major Features of Ocean Floor and Continents
What are seamounts?
Submerged volcanic structures that dot the ocean floor.
What is the significance of glaciers in terms of freshwater?
They contain nearly 69% of Earth's freshwater.
p.2
Scientific Revolution and Continental Drift Hypothesis
What is a light-year?
A unit for measuring distances to stars, equal to the distance light travels in one Earth year.
p.3
Earth's Internal Structure
What generates Earth's magnetic field?
The movement of metallic iron in the outer core.
p.4
Major Features of Ocean Floor and Continents
What is the continental shelf?
A gently sloping platform that extends seaward from the shore.
p.5
Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics
What is plate tectonics?
The theory that provides a comprehensive view of the processes that produced Earth's major surface features.
p.4
Major Features of Ocean Floor and Continents
What is the average elevation of continents?
About 0.8 kilometers (0.5 mile) above sea level.
p.1
Catastrophism vs. Uniformitarianism
What is the significance of the phrase 'the present is the key to the past'?
It emphasizes that to understand ancient rocks, we must first understand present-day processes and their results.
p.5
Scientific Revolution and Continental Drift Hypothesis
What was one main objection to Wegener's hypothesis?
His inability to identify a credible mechanism for continental drift.
p.1
Earth's Spheres: Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, Geosphere, Biosphere
What are the four spheres of the Earth system?
Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, Geosphere, and Biosphere.
p.2
Scientific Revolution and Continental Drift Hypothesis
What is the Big Bang?
An event 13.7 billion years ago when space and all matter and energy of the universe exploded.
p.3
Earth's Internal Structure
What is the depth of the mantle?
About 2900 kilometers (1800 miles).
p.2
Earth's Spheres: Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, Geosphere, Biosphere
What are noctilucent clouds and how high do they occur?
Noctilucent clouds are found at 80 km (50 mi) high in the atmosphere.
p.4
Major Features of Ocean Floor and Continents
What are abyssal plains?
Incredibly flat features found on the ocean floor.
p.4
Major Features of Ocean Floor and Continents
What is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge?
A prominent mid-ocean ridge and one of the most significant features on the ocean floor.
p.1
Earth's Spheres: Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, Geosphere, Biosphere
What is the atmosphere?
Earth’s gaseous envelope, which is a very shallow layer.
p.5
Earth's Internal Structure
What are Shields in geology?
Expansive, flat regions composed largely of deformed igneous and metamorphic rocks.
p.4
Rock Cycle and Types of Rocks
What is weathering?
The process by which the atmosphere slowly disintegrates and decomposes rocks.
p.4
Rock Cycle and Types of Rocks
What is lithification?
The conversion of sediment into rock.
p.3
Earth's Internal Structure
What is the lithosphere?
The rigid outer shell of the Earth, consisting of the crust and uppermost mantle.
p.5
Scientific Revolution and Continental Drift Hypothesis
What is Glossopteris?
A seed fern with tongue-shaped leaves and seeds too large to be carried by the wind, grew only in cool climates.
p.1
Scientific Revolution and Continental Drift Hypothesis
What defines a scientific theory?
A hypothesis that has survived extensive scrutiny and when competing hypotheses have been eliminated.
p.2
Scientific Revolution and Continental Drift Hypothesis
What does the nebular theory explain?
The formation of the solar system from an enormous rotating cloud called the solar nebula.
p.2
Earth's Spheres: Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, Geosphere, Biosphere
Where is ocean life primarily concentrated?
In the sunlit upper waters.
p.4
Major Features of Ocean Floor and Continents
What are cratons?
The interiors of the continents.
p.2
Earth's Internal Structure
What caused the formation of Earth's layered structure?
High-velocity impact of nebular debris and the decay of radioactive elements.
p.1
Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics
What is the theory of plate tectonics?
It provides geologists with the first comprehensive model of Earth’s internal workings.
p.2
Earth's Internal Structure
What are the two sources of energy powering the Earth system?
The Sun and Earth's interior.
p.2
Scientific Revolution and Continental Drift Hypothesis
What are planetesimals?
Larger asteroid-sized bodies formed from repeated collisions.
Who proposed the theory of plate tectonics?
E) Not mentioned in the text
Explanation: The theory of plate tectonics, which provided geologists with the first comprehensive model of Earth’s internal workings, is not explicitly attributed to an individual in the provided text.
Who proposed the theory of uniformitarianism?
C) James Hutton
Explanation: James Hutton proposed the theory of uniformitarianism in his book 'Theory of the Earth' in 1795. This theory suggests that the physical, chemical, and biological laws that operate today have also operated in the geologic past, emphasizing the importance of present-day processes in understanding ancient rocks.
What is the average depth of the global ocean?
B) 3800 meters (12,500 feet)
Explanation: The average depth of the global ocean is approximately 3800 meters (12,500 feet), indicating the substantial depth of this vast body of water and its role in the Earth's hydrosphere.
What is the most prominent feature of the hydrosphere?
A) Global ocean
Explanation: The global ocean is the most prominent feature of the hydrosphere, blanketing nearly 71 percent of Earth’s surface and containing about 97 percent of Earth’s water. This highlights the significance of the ocean in the Earth's water system.
What percentage of Earth's freshwater is stored in glaciers?
D) 69%
Explanation: Nearly 69% of Earth's freshwater is stored in glaciers, underscoring the significant contribution of glaciers to the Earth's freshwater resources and their impact on the hydrosphere.
