p.1
Divisions of the Nervous System
What is the primary role of the nervous system?
To analyze sensory information from the body and the external environment.
p.29
Lymphocytes and Antibody Production
Why are some pathogens better at evading the immune response?
Because they can change their antigens more effectively than others.
p.29
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
How does antigenic variation relate to the influenza virus?
It allows the influenza virus to remain a major public health problem, requiring annual vaccinations.
p.9
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is the function of glial cells?
To support and maintain the neurones.
p.17
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What is immunity?
The ability of the body to resist infection by a pathogen or to destroy the organism if it invades.
p.30
Clinical Trials for Vaccines and Drugs
What are the main questions clinical trials aim to answer?
Does it work? Is it safe? Does it cause side effects? How does it affect quality of life? Does it work better than existing treatments?
p.25
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What is the result of vaccination?
The person acquires artificial immunity.
p.20
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What is a phagocyte?
A motile cell that can recognize pathogens.
p.20
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What is the process of phagocytosis?
The engulfing of pathogens and their destruction by digestive enzymes in lysosomes.
p.25
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What occurs during naturally acquired immunity?
A person is exposed to a live pathogen, develops the disease, and becomes immune as a result of the primary immune response.
p.10
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is the role of the cell body in a neuron?
To process incoming signals and maintain the neuron's health.
p.23
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
Why is the primary response often unable to prevent illness?
It takes time to produce antibodies.
p.13
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is the effect of an inhibitory signal on heart muscle?
It reduces the rate and strength of contraction.
p.22
Lymphocytes and Antibody Production
What are non-self antigens?
Fragments of a pathogen's antigen displayed on infected cells.
p.10
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What are the main parts of a neuron?
Dendrite, Cell Body, Axon.
p.25
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What induces artificially acquired active immunity?
A vaccine, which contains the antigen.
p.30
Clinical Trials for Vaccines and Drugs
How are participants involved in clinical trials?
In a controlled and carefully planned way.
p.3
Neural Pathways: Diverging, Converging, and Reverberating
What happens to peristalsis when the rate of contraction of smooth muscle decreases?
There is a decreased rate of peristalsis.
p.3
Neural Pathways: Diverging, Converging, and Reverberating
What occurs when the rate of contraction of smooth muscle increases?
There is an increased rate of peristalsis.
p.25
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What is the role of a vaccine in the immune response?
It stimulates a primary response against the antigen without causing symptoms of disease.
p.17
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
How does non-specific defense work?
It works against any type of disease-causing agent.
p.9
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What are the two main types of cells in the nervous system?
Neurones and glial cells.
p.10
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is the function of dendrites in a neuron?
To receive signals from other neurons.
p.18
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What is the function of lysozyme in tears and saliva?
It digests the cell walls of bacteria and destroys them.
p.4
Neural Pathways: Diverging, Converging, and Reverberating
What is the function of diverging neural pathways?
Impulses from one neuron travel to several neurons, affecting multiple destinations simultaneously.
p.23
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What leads to T lymphocytes responding to self-antigens?
Failure in regulation of the immune system.
p.25
Lymphocytes and Antibody Production
What types of lymphocytes are produced as a result of vaccination?
B Lymphocytes and T Lymphocytes.
p.17
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What role do epithelial cells play in physical defense?
They form a physical barrier and offer protection as long as the skin remains intact.
p.22
Lymphocytes and Antibody Production
What triggers an allergic reaction?
B Lymphocytes responding to harmless antigens like pollen.
p.1
Divisions of the Nervous System
What happens to some of the sensory information analyzed by the nervous system?
It is stored, and decisions are made for appropriate responses and behavior.
p.24
Lymphocytes and Antibody Production
What happens to some B and T lymphocytes after the first exposure to an antigen?
They survive long term as memory cells.
p.23
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What is the primary response in immunology?
The first response to an antigen that produces antibodies.
p.14
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is required for neurotransmitter molecules to transmit an impulse?
A minimum number must attach to receptors to reach threshold on the postsynaptic membrane.
p.27
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What is the transmission method for Measles?
Airborne through saliva droplets.
p.13
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What determines the type of alteration to a postsynaptic membrane after neurotransmitter binding?
The type of receptor present, either excitatory or inhibitory.
p.14
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What are endorphins?
Neurotransmitters that stimulate neurons involved in reducing the intensity of pain.
p.1
Divisions of the Nervous System
What type of responses does the nervous system initiate?
Motor responses that either initiate muscular contractions or glandular secretions.
p.13
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What happens when acetylcholine binds to receptors on skeletal muscle fibers?
It causes muscle fibers to contract, e.g., peristalsis.
p.22
Lymphocytes and Antibody Production
What is one role of T lymphocytes?
To destroy infected cells by recognizing pathogen antigens.
p.4
Neural Pathways: Diverging, Converging, and Reverberating
What is an example of diverging neural pathways?
The divergence of motor neurons for fine motor control of fingers.
p.23
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
Name two autoimmune diseases mentioned.
Type 1 diabetes and rheumatoid arthritis.
p.10
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is the function of the axon in a neuron?
To transmit nerve impulses away from the cell body.
p.18
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
How do ciliated cells contribute to respiratory defense?
They sweep mucus and trapped microbes up and away from the lungs.
p.17
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
Where are closely packed epithelial cells found?
In the skin and inner linings of the digestive and respiratory systems.
p.29
Lymphocytes and Antibody Production
How can antigenic variation occur?
Through random mutation or programmed changes in protein expression.
p.30
Clinical Trials for Vaccines and Drugs
What is the primary purpose of clinical trials?
To find new and improved ways of preventing, diagnosing, treating, and controlling illnesses.
p.29
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What is a key reason individuals at risk need to be vaccinated against influenza every year?
Due to the antigenic variation of the influenza virus.
p.3
Neural Pathways: Diverging, Converging, and Reverberating
What is peristalsis?
The rate of contraction of smooth muscle in the digestive tract.
p.14
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
Where can summation occur?
At converging neural pathways.
p.3
Neural Pathways: Diverging, Converging, and Reverberating
What effect does the sympathetic system have on heart rate and breathing rate?
It speeds up heart rate and breathing rate.
p.14
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What triggers an increase in endorphin production?
Severe injury, prolonged exercise, stress, and certain foods.
p.10
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
In which direction does a nerve impulse travel in a neuron?
Dendrites -> Cell Body -> Axon.
p.29
Lymphocytes and Antibody Production
What is one consequence of antigenic variation for memory cells?
Memory cells become ineffective against pathogens that change their antigens.
p.18
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What role does mucus play in the immune system?
It is sticky and helps to trap microorganisms.
p.30
Clinical Trials for Vaccines and Drugs
What must vaccines demonstrate before being licensed for use?
They must be shown to be safe and effective when used in humans.
p.18
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What is the effect of stomach acid on microbes?
It destroys many of the microbes that have been swallowed.
p.13
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is the effect of an excitatory signal?
It causes contraction in muscle.
p.14
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What feelings are increased levels of endorphins linked to?
Feelings of pleasure from activities such as eating, sex, and prolonged exercise.
p.7
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What does the Serial Position Effect indicate about recall?
Recall is best for items shown at the end (recency effect) and those at the start (primacy effect), while items in the middle are recalled poorly.
p.24
Lymphocytes and Antibody Production
How does antibody production during the secondary response compare to the primary response?
It is greater and more rapid during the secondary response.
p.20
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What role do lysosomes play in phagocytes?
They contain digestive enzymes that destroy engulfed bacteria.
p.12
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
Name two examples of neurotransmitters.
Acetylcholine and Noradrenaline.
p.12
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
Where are neurotransmitters stored?
In vesicles in the axon endings of the presynaptic neuron.
p.12
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What happens to neurotransmitters upon the arrival of an impulse?
They are released into the synaptic cleft.
p.16
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
How do recreational drugs impact cognition?
They can impair the ability to carry out complex mental tasks.
p.11
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What are the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons?
The presynaptic neuron is before the synaptic cleft, and the postsynaptic neuron is after it.
p.8
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
How does rehearsal facilitate memory transfer?
Rehearsal facilitates transfer from STM to LTM.
p.8
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
Why is elaboration considered a deeper form of encoding?
It leads to improved information retention.
p.19
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What is the sixth stage of the inflammatory response?
Accumulation of phagocytes and delivery of blood clotting elements.
p.8
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What is the capacity of long-term memory (LTM)?
Thought to have unlimited capacity.
p.29
Lymphocytes and Antibody Production
What is antigenic variation?
The ability of pathogens to change their antigens to evade the immune system.
p.17
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What is a pathogen?
A bacterium, virus, or other organism that can cause disease.
p.17
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What is the first line of defense in non-specific immunity?
Physical and chemical defenses.
p.14
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
How do synapses filter weak stimuli?
By filtering out weak stimuli arising from insufficient secretion of neurotransmitters.
p.30
Clinical Trials for Vaccines and Drugs
What are the three main protocols used in vaccine clinical trials?
Randomised, double-blind, and placebo-controlled.
p.21
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What are lymphocytes?
White blood cells involved in the specific immune response that respond to specific antigens.
p.31
Clinical Trials for Vaccines and Drugs
What is a placebo?
A dummy treatment, such as a sugar pill that looks like the drug being tested.
p.9
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is the role of the cell body in a neurone?
It acts as the control center of cell metabolism.
p.26
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What are weakened pathogen vaccines?
Vaccines made from weakened forms of pathogens, such as Measles, Mumps, and Rubella vaccines.
p.7
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What is a key characteristic of Long-Term Memory (LTM)?
LTM has unlimited capacity and holds information for a long time.
p.31
Clinical Trials for Vaccines and Drugs
What is the significance of group size in trials?
A suitable group size reduces experimental error and helps establish statistical significance.
p.9
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is the function of the myelin sheath?
To insulate the axon and increase the speed of impulse conduction.
p.11
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What happens to the myelin sheath in certain diseases?
Diseases like Multiple Sclerosis destroy the myelin sheath, causing a loss of coordination.
p.11
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What role do glial cells play?
They support neurons physically and produce the myelin sheath.
p.28
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What was the status of diphtheria before the vaccination program in 1940?
It was a very common bacterial infection and one of the leading causes of death in children.
p.11
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is the synaptic cleft?
The narrow space that separates neurons at a synapse.
p.5
Cerebral Cortex and Brain Function Localization
How is the size of the area on the sensory strip determined?
It is proportionate to the sensitivity of that body part.
p.16
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What causes drug addiction?
Repeated use of drugs that act as antagonists.
p.19
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What is the first stage of an inflammatory response?
A physical injury occurs.
p.16
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
How do agonists affect receptors in the nervous system?
They stimulate specific receptors, causing a decrease in number and sensitivity.
p.25
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What do memory cells do after vaccination?
They persist and can initiate a secondary response if exposed to the normal disease-causing antigen later.
p.14
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is summation in the context of neurotransmission?
A process where a series of weak stimuli combine to trigger enough neurotransmitter to fire an impulse in the postsynaptic neuron.
p.31
Clinical Trials for Vaccines and Drugs
What is the purpose of randomisation in a trial?
To put subjects into different groups at random, reducing bias in characteristics like age and gender.
p.1
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What does the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) consist of?
The Somatic Nervous System (SNS) and the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS).
p.24
Lymphocytes and Antibody Production
What does the immune system do during a secondary response to a pathogen?
It destroys the invading pathogen before symptoms appear.
p.9
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is an axon?
A single nerve fibre that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body.
p.7
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
How are items organized during encoding in Long-Term Memory?
Items are organized into categories such as personal facts and useful skills.
p.26
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What is herd immunity?
When a critical portion of a community is immunized, protecting most members from contagious diseases.
p.20
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What is the end result of phagocytosis?
The bacterium is degraded and destroyed.
p.16
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
How do recreational drugs affect neurotransmission?
They alter mood, cognition, perception, and behavior.
p.21
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
How are antibodies transported in the body?
Once released into the blood and lymphatic system, they are transported to the infected area.
p.28
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What risk is associated with a decline in vaccination rates for diphtheria?
There is a risk of an outbreak occurring.
p.16
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What do antagonists do in the context of drug addiction?
They block specific receptors, leading to increased number and sensitivity of these receptors.
p.19
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What causes swelling in the injured area during inflammation?
Increased permeability of capillaries leading to fluid leakage.
p.8
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What aids retrieval of information from long-term memory (LTM)?
Contextual cues at the time of encoding.
p.3
Neural Pathways: Diverging, Converging, and Reverberating
How does the sympathetic system affect peristalsis and intestinal secretions?
It slows down peristalsis and production of intestinal secretions.
p.1
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What are the two main components of the Central Nervous System (CNS)?
The brain and the spinal cord.
p.13
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What effect does acetylcholine have when it binds to heart muscle fiber receptors?
It has an inhibitory effect, reducing contraction rate and strength.
p.21
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What is the role of membrane receptors on lymphocytes?
They are specific to one antigen and activate the lymphocyte when bound by that antigen.
p.11
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
How does the presence of myelin affect impulse transmission?
It greatly increases the speed at which impulses can be transmitted.
p.20
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What happens after a phagocyte recognizes a bacterium?
It adheres to the bacterium and engulfs it in the cell membrane.
p.24
Lymphocytes and Antibody Production
What condition does the depletion of T lymphocytes due to HIV lead to?
AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome).
p.2
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What types of neurons are included in the Somatic Nervous System?
Sensory and Motor Neurons.
p.6
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What happens to information in short-term memory after 30 seconds?
It is either transferred to long-term memory or lost through displacement or decay.
p.16
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What are the effects of recreational drugs on mood?
They can make individuals feel happier, more confident, or more aggressive.
p.16
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is one way recreational drugs affect perception?
They can cause misinterpretation of environmental stimuli like color, sounds, and time.
p.8
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What are the methods for transferring information from short-term memory (STM) to long-term memory (LTM)?
Rehearsal, Organisation, and Elaboration.
p.12
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What happens to Acetylcholine after it is released?
It is broken down by an enzyme into non-active products, which are then reabsorbed and resynthesized.
p.5
Cerebral Cortex and Brain Function Localization
What role does the corpus callosum play in brain function?
It facilitates the transfer of information between the cerebral hemispheres.
p.8
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What does elaboration involve in the context of memory?
Elaboration involves analyzing the meaning of the item and linking it to previous memories.
p.4
Neural Pathways: Diverging, Converging, and Reverberating
What happens in converging neural pathways?
Impulses from several neurons travel to one neuron, increasing sensitivity to signals.
p.3
Neural Pathways: Diverging, Converging, and Reverberating
What is the role of the parasympathetic system in relation to the sympathetic system?
It changes the actions of the sympathetic system in the opposite way.
p.3
Neural Pathways: Diverging, Converging, and Reverberating
What are the three types of neural pathways mentioned?
Diverging, Converging, and Reverberating neural pathways.
p.13
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is the role of neurotransmitters in the nervous system?
They relay messages from nerve to nerves within and outside the brain.
p.27
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What is the outcome when some of the population is immunized but not enough?
Not enough to confer herd immunity.
p.12
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What are neurotransmitters?
Chemicals that relay messages across the synaptic cleft.
p.20
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What occurs when lysosomes fuse with the vacuole?
They release digestive enzymes that destroy the bacterium.
p.15
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What do agonists do?
They bind to and stimulate specific receptors, mimicking the action of a neurotransmitter at a synapse.
p.5
Cerebral Cortex and Brain Function Localization
What are the distinct regions of the cerebral hemisphere responsible for?
They are responsible for sensory, motor, and association areas concerning language, personality, imagination, and intelligence.
p.5
Cerebral Cortex and Brain Function Localization
What does the sensory area of the cerebral cortex do?
It receives impulses from receptors in the skin, organs, and muscles, then passes this information to the motor area.
p.12
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
How does Noradrenaline undergo reuptake?
It is reabsorbed directly into the presynaptic membrane that secreted it.
p.16
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is sensitization in relation to drug addiction?
It leads to craving more of the drug due to increased receptor sensitivity.
p.28
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What challenges can arise in establishing herd immunity?
Poverty in developing countries or vaccine rejection in developed countries.
p.2
Divisions of the Nervous System
What effect does the Parasympathetic System have on breathing rate?
Contracts smooth muscle wall of bronchioles, decreasing intake of air.
p.28
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
Despite studies showing safety, what remains a concern for some parents regarding the MMR vaccine?
They are concerned that the MMR vaccine is not safe.
p.31
Clinical Trials for Vaccines and Drugs
What are the two groups typically found in a randomised trial?
One group receives the new treatment, while the other (control group) receives the standard treatment or a placebo.
p.9
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What does the cell body of a neurone contain?
The nucleus and most of the cytoplasm.
p.15
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is the primary function of dopamine?
Induces feelings of pleasure and reinforces particular behavior by activating the reward pathway in the brain.
p.6
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What is encoding in the context of memory?
The process of converting sensory images into a form that the brain can process and store.
p.22
Lymphocytes and Antibody Production
How do T lymphocytes cause infected cells to undergo apoptosis?
By releasing proteins that produce self-destructing enzymes.
p.4
Neural Pathways: Diverging, Converging, and Reverberating
What role do rods play in the retina?
They are visual receptors that increase sensitivity to low levels of illumination.
p.9
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What are axon terminals?
Divisions at the end of an axon.
p.21
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What is the role of B lymphocytes?
They produce antibodies against antigens, leading to the destruction of pathogens.
p.21
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What are antibodies?
Y-shaped proteins with receptor binding sites specific to a particular antigen on a pathogen.
p.5
Cerebral Cortex and Brain Function Localization
How does the cerebral cortex affect behavior?
It recalls memories and alters behavior in light of experience.
p.12
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What happens to neurotransmitter molecules between impulses?
They are rapidly removed from the synaptic cleft to prevent continuous stimulation.
p.12
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What are the two types of neurotransmitter removal?
Reuptake and enzyme degradation.
p.11
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
How do neurotransmitters function at the synapse?
They relay impulses across the synaptic cleft.
p.2
Divisions of the Nervous System
What is the function of the Parasympathetic System?
Prepares the body for rest and digest.
p.2
Divisions of the Nervous System
How does the Sympathetic System affect heart rate?
Increases contraction of cardiac muscles and cardiac output.
p.26
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What are inactivated vaccines?
Vaccines made from pathogens that are killed or inactive, such as the Diphtheria and Tetanus vaccines.
p.6
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What are the three main processes involved in memory?
Encoding, storage, and retrieval.
p.22
Lymphocytes and Antibody Production
What is apoptosis?
Programmed cell death induced by T lymphocytes.
p.4
Neural Pathways: Diverging, Converging, and Reverberating
How do converging pathways increase sensitivity in the retina?
Several rods converge to one rod bipolar cell, allowing enough neurotransmitter to be released.
p.15
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
When is the reward pathway activated?
When an individual engages in behavior that is beneficial to them, such as eating when hungry.
p.26
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What is an adjuvant in vaccines?
A substance mixed with antigens to enhance the immune response and make the vaccine more effective.
p.6
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What is sensory memory?
A very short-lived memory that retains all visual and auditory input for about 0.5 seconds.
p.26
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
How does herd immunity protect non-immune individuals?
It reduces the probability of contact with infected individuals, thus providing indirect protection.
p.2
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What do Sensory Neurons do?
Take impulses from sense organs to the Central Nervous System (CNS).
p.2
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What do Motor Neurons do?
Take impulses from the Central Nervous System (CNS) to muscles and glands.
p.15
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
How do inhibitors enhance neurotransmitter effects?
By inhibiting the enzymes that degrade neurotransmitters or inhibiting reuptake at the synapse.
p.19
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What effect does histamine have on blood vessels?
Causes vasodilation and increases capillary permeability.
p.19
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What role do phagocytes play in the inflammatory response?
They engulf pathogens and clean up the injured site.
p.5
Cerebral Cortex and Brain Function Localization
How do the sensory and motor areas work together?
They produce an integrated response.
p.16
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What causes drug tolerance?
Repeated use of drugs that act as agonists.
p.16
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is desensitization in the context of drug tolerance?
It leads to the need for more of the drug to achieve the same effect.
p.8
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What is a contextual cue?
A signal or reminder related to the conditions present when the information was encoded.
p.24
Lymphocytes and Antibody Production
What occurs during a secondary exposure to the same antigen?
Memory cells rapidly give rise to a new clone of specific lymphocytes.
p.26
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What is an example of a vaccine made from parts of a pathogen?
HPV vaccine against cervical cancer and Hepatitis B.
p.7
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What is the Working Memory Model?
It suggests that short-term memory is complex, capable of processing and storing data, and has subdivisions for different types of data.
p.31
Clinical Trials for Vaccines and Drugs
Why are double-blind trials important?
To ensure neither the subjects nor the researchers know who is receiving the trial treatment, preventing bias in results.
p.11
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is myelination?
The process by which myelin develops around axon fibers.
p.15
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What can cause neurotransmitter-related disorders?
Alterations in the production, release, breakdown, or re-uptake of a neurotransmitter.
p.2
Divisions of the Nervous System
What does the Somatic Nervous System (SNS) control?
The voluntary movement of skeletal muscles.
p.15
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What are the two types of drugs used to treat neurotransmitter disorders?
Agonists and Antagonists.
p.26
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What factors determine the threshold for establishing herd immunity?
Type of disease, effectiveness of the vaccine, and density of the population.
p.15
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is the role of antagonists?
They bind to specific receptors, blocking the action of the neurotransmitter at a synapse.
p.2
Divisions of the Nervous System
How does the Autonomic Nervous System operate?
Automatically, without conscious thought.
p.2
Divisions of the Nervous System
What are the two systems that make up the Autonomic Nervous System?
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic.
p.2
Divisions of the Nervous System
How does the Parasympathetic System affect heart rate?
Decreases contraction of cardiac muscles and cardiac output.
p.4
Neural Pathways: Diverging, Converging, and Reverberating
What is a characteristic of reverberating neural pathways?
They allow repeated stimulation of the pathway, similar to an echo.
p.20
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What are cytokines?
Protein molecules that signal specific white blood cells to accumulate at the site of infection.
p.1
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What types of neurons are found in the Somatic Nervous System (SNS)?
Sensory and motor neurons.
p.21
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What happens when a specific lymphocyte is activated by an antigen?
It is said to have been 'selected' by the antigen.
p.27
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What is the result of a critical portion of the population being immunized?
Protects most community members.
p.11
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
When is myelination complete?
At birth, but it continues from birth to adolescence.
p.15
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
Name two examples of neurotransmitter-related disorders.
Alzheimer’s disease and Depression.
p.5
Cerebral Cortex and Brain Function Localization
What is the primary function of the cerebral cortex?
It is the center of conscious thought.
p.21
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What does each clone of B cells produce?
One type of antibody molecule that is specific to one type of antigen.
p.11
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is a synapse?
The connection point where neurons connect with other neurons or muscle fibers.
p.28
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What does it mean for diphtheria to be a notifiable disease?
Doctors must inform the local authority if they diagnose the condition.
p.5
Cerebral Cortex and Brain Function Localization
What is the function of the motor area in the cerebral cortex?
It obtains information from the sensory area and sends impulses to appropriate skeletal muscles.
p.8
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What is the nature of rehearsal in terms of encoding?
Rehearsal is regarded as a shallow form of encoding information into LTM.
p.8
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
How does organization aid in memory transfer?
Information organized into logical categories is more easily transferred from STM to LTM.
p.5
Cerebral Cortex and Brain Function Localization
What is the relationship between body sides and cerebral hemispheres?
Information from one side of the body is processed in the opposite side of the cerebrum.
p.8
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What happens to most sensory images formed in the brain?
Most sensory images are quickly forgotten.
p.21
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What are antigens?
Molecules, often proteins, located on the surface of cells that trigger a specific immune response.
p.11
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is myelin?
The fatty tissue that insulates an axon.
p.15
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What does the reward pathway involve?
Neurons that secrete or respond to dopamine.
p.6
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What does storage refer to in memory?
The retention of information over a period of time, which can range from 30 seconds to a lifetime.
p.22
Lymphocytes and Antibody Production
What happens to the remains of cells after apoptosis?
They are cleared away by phagocytosis.
p.11
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
Why are responses to stimuli slower in the first two years of life?
Because many more neurons are myelinated during this period.
p.12
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
How do neurotransmitters interact with the postsynaptic neuron?
They diffuse across the cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron's membrane.
p.6
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
How can rehearsal help with memory?
By repeating information to yourself, either silently or out loud, to aid memorization.
p.19
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What is the function of clotting elements in the inflammatory response?
They help prevent further infection and start tissue repair.
p.28
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
Who may be not eligible for vaccines in the community?
Individuals undergoing cancer treatments or those on immunosuppressants.
p.2
Divisions of the Nervous System
What effect does the Sympathetic System have on breathing rate?
Relaxes smooth muscle wall of bronchioles, increasing intake of air.
p.28
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What have well-controlled studies found regarding the MMR vaccine and autism?
No evidence that the MMR vaccine causes autism.
p.7
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What happens to the first few objects in a list during recall?
They have enough time to be rehearsed and are often transferred to Long-Term Memory (LTM).
p.31
Clinical Trials for Vaccines and Drugs
What is the 'placebo effect'?
When people feel better after receiving a placebo because they believe they are receiving real treatment.
p.3
Neural Pathways: Diverging, Converging, and Reverberating
Where are neurons connected in various ways?
In the Central Nervous System (CNS).
p.1
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What are the two systems that make up the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)?
The Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Systems.
p.6
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What is retrieval in memory?
The recovery of stored material, involving the recall of information from short-term or long-term memory.
p.31
Clinical Trials for Vaccines and Drugs
What is compared at the end of a trial?
Results from the two groups to determine statistically significant differences.
p.6
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What is the capacity of short-term memory (STM)?
Can hold about 7 items for approximately 30 seconds.
p.26
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
Why is establishing herd immunity important?
It helps reduce the spread of diseases.
p.2
Divisions of the Nervous System
What does the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) control?
The involuntary movement of skeletal muscles, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.
p.8
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
How does attention affect memory quality during encoding?
The quality of memory is affected by the attention given to the task of encoding.
p.16
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What is the role of the reward pathway in relation to recreational drugs?
Many recreational drugs affect neurotransmission in the reward pathway.
p.28
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What was the impact of the diphtheria epidemic in the former Soviet Union between 1990 and 1998?
It resulted in 157,000 cases and 5,000 deaths due to increased numbers of unvaccinated children.
p.28
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What is the goal of public health immunization programs?
To establish herd immunity to a number of diseases.
p.5
Cerebral Cortex and Brain Function Localization
How does the left cerebral hemisphere process information?
It processes information from the right visual field and controls the right side of the body.
p.19
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What is the result of increased blood flow to the site of infection?
The area becomes red and inflamed.
p.9
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
What do dendrites do?
They receive nerve impulses and pass them towards the cell body.
p.26
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What are dead pathogen vaccines?
Vaccines made from dead pathogens, such as Poliomyelitis and Hepatitis A.
p.21
Immune System: Non-Specific and Specific Defenses
What is a clonal population in the context of lymphocytes?
A population of identical lymphocytes formed through repeated division after antigen binding.
p.4
Neural Pathways: Diverging, Converging, and Reverberating
What is the significance of reverberating pathways in physiology?
They are used in repetitive activities such as breathing.
p.24
Lymphocytes and Antibody Production
What is a key characteristic of individuals with AIDS?
They have a weakened immune system and are more vulnerable to opportunistic infections.
p.24
Lymphocytes and Antibody Production
What is the difference between HIV and AIDS?
HIV is a virus that weakens the immune system, while AIDS is a condition resulting from severe immune system weakening due to HIV.
p.6
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What is 'chunking' in memory?
A technique to improve STM capacity by grouping several smaller units into a meaningful unit.
p.6
Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
What is the serial position effect?
A phenomenon where items at the beginning and end of a list are more easily remembered than those in the middle.
p.2
Divisions of the Nervous System
What is the function of the Sympathetic System?
Prepares the body for fight or flight.
p.28
Vaccination and Herd Immunity
What sparked public concerns about the MMR vaccine?
A small case series suggested a link between the vaccine and autism.
