7.0 - 8.0 μm.
Small glycoproteins that regulate haematopoiesis of different blood cell types.
To cause hematopoietic stem cells to proliferate and differentiate into specific blood cells, usually white blood cells.
Erythropoiesis (RBC), Leukopoiesis (WBC), Myelopoiesis (granulocytes), Lymphopoiesis (lymphocytes), and Thrombopoiesis (platelets).
Increased plasma concentration of acute-phase proteins due to acute tissue damage, chronic inflammation, chronic infection, and pregnancy.
Wright and Leishman stains.
In picograms (pg).
RBCs will form into stacks resembling coins; there is nothing that can be done to correct this on whole blood.
Self-renewal, maintaining constant cellularity.
The Westergren method.
Adequate iron supply & delivery, adequate synthesis of protoporphyrins, and adequate globin synthesis.
Erythropoietin and vitamin B6.
Pluripotential cells.
The stain should not be too dark or too pale, and there should be no stain precipitate present.
Progenitor cells have a lesser ability to self-renew compared to stem cells.
Haematology & Transfusion Science.
RBCs will clump together; warm the blood at 37°C for 5 minutes, then remake the smear.
They provide a higher percentage of positive diagnosis in much less time since they are ten times thicker than normal smears.
Decreased bone marrow production.
The stacking up of red blood cells caused by extra or abnormal proteins in the blood.
800 ml of oxygen.
A tetrametric molecule made up of four subunits.
The ability of stem cells to replicate indefinitely via asymmetric cell division.
It reversibly combines with one molecule of oxygen or carbon dioxide.
By dividing the hematocrit by the number of red blood cells (RBC).
An immature red blood cell that is released from the bone marrow.
The production of blood cells by blood-forming organs.
In the secondary lymphoid organs, bone marrow, and thymus gland.
It is the period during which sedimentation occurs at a more or less constant rate, and is considered the most significant phase.
Erythropoietin (EPO).
Biconcave disc.
Plasma proteins affect rouleaux formation, which is the basis for measuring ESR as a non-specific test of inflammation and tissue damage.
In mm/hr.
Descendants of stem cells that differentiate to create specialized cell types.
Malaria parasites in thick films.
Infants: Bone marrow (practically all bones); Adults: Vertebrae, ribs, sternum, skull, sacrum, pelvis, proximal ends of femur.
Measurements that describe the size and hemoglobin content of red blood cells.
A haem group and a globin chain.
Mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), and red cell distribution width (RDW).
They regulate cell growth, differentiation, and motility, and are important in stimulating immune responses such as inflammation.
ESR increases due to decreased plasma albumin and increased concentrations of α-globulin and fibrinogen.
1.34 ml of oxygen.
Yolk sac.
Stimulates the formation of thrombocytes (platelets).
Oxygen diffuses out of the blood, and CO2 diffuses into the blood.
Intermediate cell types in blood cell development that develop from hematopoietic stem cells.
The average weight of hemoglobin in a red blood cell.
PO2, PCO2, and the affinity of hemoglobin for O2.
Regulates the production of platelets and stimulates megakaryocyte differentiation.
Lymphoproliferative and myeloproliferative disorders.
RPI = Corrected retic count in % / Maturation time (MI) in days.
Heparin and histamine.
146 amino acids.
The study of formed cellular blood elements: white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.
Hb F.
Erythrocytes (RBC).
In the marrow of the bones that form the axial skeleton.
Approximately 600g.
Transferrin.
The capability of giving rise to several different cell types.
To help in the differential diagnosis of anemia.
Hemoglobin.
Whole blood, non-hemolyzed (no clots).
Haem.
O2 to be released from hemoglobin.
They are involved in the formation and differentiation of various cell types.
A decreased affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen.
By dividing the hemoglobin by the hematocrit.
Anemia.
Involved in haemostasis to limit blood loss at an injured site.
Maintaining proper blood osmotic pressure.
Corrected retic count = Retic% x patient’s Hct% / Average Normal Hct%.
2 - 3 times the number of WBCs present in the examination.
Naturally occurring proteins that mediate communication between cells.
The settling of erythrocytes in diluted human plasma over a specified time period.
Acidic dyes like eosin stain basic components (cytoplasm), while basic stains like methylene blue stain acidic parts (nucleic acids and nucleoproteins).
Erythroid, Granulocytic, Monocytic, and Megakaryocytic.
From deep blue to lavender and then to pink.
0 - 10 mm/hr.
Hemoglobin that is bound to oxygen.
Hemoglobin that lacks oxygen.
Late cells.
Multiple small dots in every cell.
They stay longer as reticulocytes and contribute to the reticulocyte count for more than 1 day, causing a false increase.
80 - 97 femtoliters (fl) for both men and women.
Vitamin B12 and folic acid deficiencies.
Sufficient working area, acceptable morphology, gradual thickness transition, no ridges or holes, and smooth margins.
An increased affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen.
In patients with hemolytic anemia and those with hemorrhage (acute and chronic).
Albumins (54%), globulins (38%), and fibrinogen (7%).
1 - 4 μm in diameter.
An area where approximately 50% of the RBCs show minimal overlapping and 50% are individually spaced.
In the bone marrow.
Transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Aplastic anemia, radiation therapy, tumors in marrow, ineffective erythropoiesis (thalassemia, pernicious anemia, sideroblastic anemia).
Neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes.
It enters the cytoplasm and becomes committed to hemoglobin synthesis.
In the mitochondria.
They differentiate into multipotent progenitor cells.
Protoporphyrin.
Anemia alters the ratio of red cells to plasma, encouraging rouleaux formation and accelerating sedimentation.
A potent type of stem cell that exists during early embryonic development.
10 - 12 μm in diameter.
Direct daylight exposure should be avoided as it may cause falsely elevated results due to reduced plasma viscosity.
Anemia or acidosis.
Normochromic (normal concentration) and hypochromic (lower than normal concentration).
Some cases of hereditary spherocytosis.
14 - 18 μm in diameter.
An injury occurs, activating the inactive enzymes.
Five distinct cell types.
They have a nucleus with two lobes in a 'spectacle' arrangement.
Secreted glycoproteins that bind to receptor proteins on hematopoietic stem cells, activating signaling pathways for cell proliferation and differentiation.
It reduces, increasing the rate of rouleaux formation and sedimentation.
Two α-chains and two γ-chains.
Haematopoietic growth factors.
Eosin Y or eosin B (acidic), methylene blue (basic), and methyl alcohol (solvent and fixative).
A combination of a Romanowsky stain with another stain to improve staining of cytoplasmic granules and nucleoli.
It is a fully automated instrument designed to convey, fix, and stain dry blood smears.
Reddish pink.
Dark purple with varying shades of blue cytoplasm.
By staining with Wright-Giemsa.
24 to 27 hours.
About 45%.
Approximately 7.35 - 7.45.
Hematocrit (Hct).
An inadequate response of erythropoiesis by the bone marrow to a state of anemia.
20 - 200/μl.
340 ± 20 g/l or 34 ± 2.0 g/dl.
Iron deficiency anemia.
150 - 400 x10^9/L.
Polymorphonuclear leucocytes (granulocytes) and Mononuclear leucocytes.
Too thick films, prolonged staining, inadequate washing, too high alkalinity of stain or diluent.
They stimulate immune responses, particularly in inflammation.
Fibrinogen and alpha and beta globulins.
They are derived from a pluripotent stem cell.
Progenitor cells have a limited differentiation potential compared to stem cells, which can differentiate into multiple cell types.
Typical purple coloration for leukocyte nuclei and neutrophilic granules, with numerous blues and pinks in other cell types.
Multipotent neural stem cells (NSCs).
0 - 20 mm/hr.
The storage form of iron in the cytoplasm.
Types of oligopotent progenitor cells that differentiate into only a few cell types.
Hemoglobin binds more O2.
Progenitor cells can differentiate into multiple types of specialized cells, but none are pluripotent.
Vibration can reduce the ESR by retarding the rate of rouleaux formation.
141 amino acids.
Two alpha chains and two gamma chains.
Through three mechanisms: dissolved in plasma, as bicarbonate, and as carbaminohemoglobin.
Hemoglobin that has been exposed to carbon monoxide, which prevents oxygen release to tissues.
Unclean slides, drying during staining, and inadequate washing at the end of staining.
% Retics = (# of total reticulocytes counted in 1000 total red cells) x 10.
42%.
Large amounts of broken cells or precipitated stain.
A type of hemoglobin associated with certain blood disorders.
Holes will appear in the smear; there is nothing that can be done to correct this.
An alcohol-based Romanowsky stain that employs various azure compounds with eosin and methylene blue.
2% to 3.5%.
It results in a rapidly falling hemoglobin and hematocrit, making diagnosis difficult.
Deep-purple dense structures, typically one or two in number.
Involved in tissue respiration.
On the ribosomes of the reticulocyte.
The ability of some progenitor cells to differentiate into only one specific cell type.
Fluid plasma and cells.
It is absorbed from the tissues and transported to the lungs to be exhaled.
Macrocytic anemia.
Microcytic anemia and iron deficiency anemia.
Transporting nutrients and metabolites, immune defense, and coagulation.
Marrow damage, erythropoietin suppression, or deficiencies in iron, vitamin B12, or folic acid.
The presence of abnormal hemoglobins or alkalosis.
0.36 - 0.46 l/l.
By staining with supravital stains like methylene blue or brilliant cresyl blue.
Prematurely released younger reticulocytes due to increased erythropoietin stimulation.
40 - 400/μl.
Red cells have a net negative charge, leading to minimal rouleaux formation and slow sedimentation in normal plasma.
Albumin counteracts rouleaux formation; its decrease (hypoalbuminemia) increases the sedimentation rate.
pH 7.1 - 7.2.
In the mitochondria of developing red cells and then in the cytoplasm of RBCs.
Embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells (or somatic stem cells).
They are pluripotent, meaning they can differentiate into any type of cell.
They are multipotent, meaning they can generate specific cell types within a particular lineage.
They are shifted to the circulation pool to compensate for anemia.
Younger stress reticulocytes present with more filamentous reticulum, while mature reticulocytes may show granular dots.
It combines with O2 and releases it to the tissues.
To replace dead or damaged cells.
By replenishing blood cells and aiding in repair after injury.
Hemoglobin Gower 1, Gower 2, and Portland.
The average concentration of hemoglobin in a red blood cell.
It is simple, accurate, and more reliable than the red cell count.
1.0 – 4.0 x10^9/L.
A form of hemoglobin with iron in the ferric state, unable to bind oxygen.
They act as scavenger cells, ingesting bacteria and particulate matter.
By fragmentation of megakaryocytes in the bone marrow.
Light blue-green inclusions usually present at the edge of erythrocytes.
Purple-staining iron deposits appearing as several granules in a small cluster.
The rate of porphyrin synthesis.
Two alpha chains and two beta chains.
K2 or K3 EDTA (ethylene diamine tetracetate).
Approximately 120 days.
55%.
The proportion of whole blood occupied by red cells.
Kidney and liver disease, bone marrow disorders, or excessive bleeding/hemolysis.
The diffusion of chloride into the cell from the plasma to compensate for bicarbonate loss.
About 92% water and 8% solutes.
0.2 – 0.8 x10^9/L.
In the bone marrow and lymphoid tissues.
Colony stimulating factors (CSFs) and interleukins.
Plasma viscosity and ESR generally increase in parallel, but high plasma viscosity may mask rouleaux formation.
Normal shape and size of red cells are essential; anisocytosis and poikilocytosis reduce the ability to form aggregates.
Ensure there are no clumps of RBCs, WBCs, or platelets.
HbA, HbF, and HbA2.
WBC, RBC, Platelets Count, Hemoglobin, Hematocrit, RBC indices, WBC Differential.
An adequate response to anemia by the bone marrow.
Chronic myeloid leukemia.
The minimum length should be 3.0 cm (approximately 3/4th of the length of the slide).
Dengue hemorrhagic fever and all forms of polycythemia.
A compound formed when a sulfur atom binds with a heme group of hemoglobin, preventing oxygen delivery.
It serves as a reservoir for proteins that circulate as inactive enzymes.
Large cells are disproportionately dragged to the feather end, affecting differential accuracy.
Prepare films with ideal thickness, reduce staining time, use less stain and more diluent, prolong washing, adjust pH of buffer.
29.5 ± 2.5 pg.
Hemoglobin A (HbA).
The percent saturation of hemoglobin at various partial pressures of oxygen.
Approximately 90-95%.
Transporting O2 and CO2.
Hyperactive erythropoiesis is occurring as the bone marrow replaces cells lost or prematurely destroyed.
Large lymphocytes have a paler nucleus and more plentiful cytoplasm.
Immature red blood cells (RBCs) containing remnant cytoplasmic RNA and organelles.
They are responsible for the body’s defenses.
Erythrocytes appear blue-green and nuclear chromatin appears deep blue to black.
Normocytic (normal size), microcytic (smaller), and macrocytic (larger) red blood cells.
96 - 98%.
The reticuloendothelial system.
Lack of iron in the diet, thalassemia, and chronic illness.
Granulocytes, lymphocytes, and monocytes.
An increase in lymphocytes seen in viral infections, especially in children.
The erythropoietic activity of the bone marrow.
45%.
To engulf and destroy bacteria or fungi in damaged or infected tissue.
Erythrocytes appear bright red or orange, and nuclear chromatin appears pale blue.
Slight deviations from vertical in the sedimentation tube can increase ESR; a 3° inclination can raise it by 30%.
The effect of pH on hemoglobin-oxygen affinity.
Two zeta chains and two epsilon chains.
It releases the oxygen it is carrying.
Defending the body against foreign antigens.
0.40 - 0.54 l/l.
They compromise oxygen transport, leading to hypoxia and cyanosis.
Preventing blood loss from hemorrhage.
Central pallor.
Gamma chains decrease while beta chains increase to produce hemoglobin A.
7 - 10 μm in diameter.
Normocytic anemias.
4.0 - 11.0 × 10^3/μl.
2.0 – 7.5 x 10^9/l.
Eosinophilia, which is linked to allergic reactions and helminthic infections.
Prolonging staining time, reducing washing, preparing a new batch of stain.
Insufficient staining, prolonged washing, too high acidity of the stain or buffer.
