p.2
Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction
What do axons of neurons in the olfactory bulb project through?
The olfactory tract to the olfactory cortex or secondary olfactory areas.
p.7
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What are the types of oblique muscles associated with the eye?
Superior and inferior oblique muscles.
p.7
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What is the sclera?
The white outer layer of the eye.
p.12
Structure and Function of the Retina
What are the three layers of neurons in the neural layer of the retina?
Photoreceptor cells, bipolar cells, and ganglionic cells.
p.2
Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction
What structure do olfactory nerves project through to reach the olfactory bulb?
The foramina in the cribriform plate.
p.9
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What is the macula?
A small yellow spot on the retina.
p.7
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What are the three tunics that compose the wall of the eye?
Fibrous, vascular, and nervous tunics.
p.6
Accessory Structures of the Eye
How do tears exit the lacrimal gland?
Through several lacrimal ducts.
p.9
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What role does the lens play in vision?
It focuses light on the macula and fovea centralis.
p.6
Accessory Structures of the Eye
What happens to tears after they pass over the surface of the eye?
They enter the lacrimal canaliculi.
p.9
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What is the fovea centralis known for?
It is the area of greatest visual acuity with tightly packed photoreceptor cells.
p.7
Accessory Structures of the Eye
What is the function of the nasolacrimal duct?
It drains tears from the eye into the nasal cavity.
p.19
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
What is the function of the tip link in hair cells?
It attaches the tip of each stereocilium to the side of the next longer stereocilium.
p.14
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
How does light intensity affect color vision?
As light intensity decreases, our ability to see color also decreases.
p.6
Accessory Structures of the Eye
Where do tears go after passing through the nasolacrimal duct?
They enter the nasal cavity.
p.9
Olfactory Epithelium Structure and Function
What are the two main layers of the retina?
Pigmented retina and sensory retina.
p.19
Process of Hearing and Sound Transmission
What happens when stereocilia bend?
They open K+ gates (mechanically gated ion channels).
p.4
Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction
Where do axons from the thalamus terminate?
In the taste area of the insula.
p.10
Accessory Structures of the Eye
What are the two chambers of the anterior compartment?
Anterior chamber (between cornea and iris) and posterior chamber (between iris and lens).
p.11
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What is the far point of vision?
The point at which the lens does not have to thicken to focus, typically 20 feet or more from the eye.
p.3
Mechanisms of Taste Sensation
What is the role of adenylate cyclase?
It catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cyclic AMP (cAMP).
p.3
Taste Buds and Types of Papillae
What are taste buds?
Supporting cells surrounding taste (gustatory) cells.
p.2
Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction
What is the role of the olfactory cortex?
It is involved in the conscious perception of smell.
p.9
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What is the optic disc?
The blind spot where blood vessels enter the eye and nerve processes exit.
p.7
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What is the structure of the eye described as?
A hollow, fluid-filled sphere.
p.2
Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction
What are the olfactory nerves formed by?
The axons of the olfactory neurons.
p.2
Olfactory Epithelium Structure and Function
What occurs when an odorant binds to a specific odorant receptor?
It triggers a response in the olfactory hair.
p.9
Olfactory Epithelium Structure and Function
What type of cells are found in the sensory retina?
Rod and cone cells sensitive to light.
p.7
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What are the types of rectus muscles associated with the eye?
Superior, inferior, medial, and lateral rectus muscles.
p.19
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
Where are the cell bodies of afferent neurons grouped?
In the cochlear (spiral) ganglion.
p.6
Accessory Structures of the Eye
What is the pathway of tears after entering the lacrimal canaliculi?
They are carried through the lacrimal sac to the nasolacrimal duct.
p.2
Olfactory Epithelium Structure and Function
What happens to the gated ion channel in an unstimulated olfactory hair?
The gated ion channel is closed.
p.19
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
What is a hair bundle?
The stereocilia of one inner hair cell.
p.17
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
What is the function of the ossicles in the ear?
They transmit vibrations from the eardrum to the oval window.
p.14
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What are cones responsible for?
Color vision and visual acuity.
p.17
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
What structures are included in the bony labyrinth?
Cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals.
p.17
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
Where is perilymph located?
In the spaces between the membranous labyrinth and the periosteum of the bony labyrinth.
p.10
Accessory Structures of the Eye
What fills the vitreous chamber of the eye?
Jelly-like vitreous humor.
p.10
Accessory Structures of the Eye
What is the function of vitreous humor?
Helps maintain intraocular pressure, holds lens and retina in place, and refracts light.
p.13
Olfactory Epithelium Structure and Function
What process requires energy in the rhodopsin cycle?
Conversion of all-trans-retinal to 11-cis-retinal.
p.9
Olfactory Epithelium Structure and Function
What is the function of the pigmented retina?
Helps to separate sensory cells and reduce light scattering.
p.19
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
What covers the basilar region of hair cells?
Synaptic terminals of sensory neurons.
p.19
Process of Hearing and Sound Transmission
What is the role of the external ear in hearing?
It collects sound waves and conducts them through the external auditory canal.
p.17
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
What is the role of the oval window?
It serves as the connection between the middle and inner ear.
p.5
Accessory Structures of the Eye
What do ciliary glands do?
They are modified sweat glands that empty into hair follicles of the eyelashes.
p.3
Mechanisms of Taste Sensation
What occurs when ions enter the olfactory hair?
Depolarization of the olfactory neuron.
p.20
Process of Hearing and Sound Transmission
What initiates the process of hearing in the middle ear?
The tympanic membrane vibrates, causing the ossicles to vibrate and transferring vibrations to the oval window.
p.12
Structure and Function of the Retina
What is the function of the pigmented layer of the retina?
Enhances visual acuity by isolating individual photoreceptors and reducing light scattering.
p.2
Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction
How does olfactory information reach the brain?
It goes directly to the olfactory cortex of the frontal lobe without passing through the thalamus.
p.4
Mechanisms of Taste Sensation
What substances are associated with the sweet taste?
Sugars, some carbohydrates, and some proteins (e.g., NutraSweet: aspartame).
p.4
Mechanisms of Taste Sensation
What does the α subunit of the G protein activate in the sweet taste pathway?
Adenylate cyclase, which produces cAMP.
p.1
Olfactory Epithelium Structure and Function
How many olfactory neurons are present in the olfactory epithelium?
10 million olfactory neurons.
p.5
Accessory Structures of the Eye
What is found at the medial canthus?
A caruncle with modified sweat and sebaceous glands.
p.11
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What covers the lens?
An elastic, transparent capsule.
p.11
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What is emmetropia?
The normal resting condition of the lens.
p.11
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What is the role of pupil constriction?
It varies the depth of focus.
p.15
Visual Disorders and Their Corrections
What causes astigmatism?
Cornea or lens not uniformly curved.
p.5
Accessory Structures of the Eye
What is the palpebral fissure?
The space between the eyelids.
p.5
Accessory Structures of the Eye
What are eyelashes?
A double or triple row of hairs that protect the eyes.
p.10
Accessory Structures of the Eye
What functions does aqueous humor serve?
Maintains intraocular pressure, supplies nutrients, and contributes to light refraction.
p.1
Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction
What do association neurons receive input from?
They also receive input from the brain.
p.16
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
What is a major dysfunction associated with diabetes?
Dysfunction of peripheral circulation.
p.16
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
What are the three divisions of the ear?
External, middle, and inner ear.
p.11
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What happens to the nuclei and organelles in the lens?
They lose nuclei and other organelles.
p.5
Accessory Structures of the Eye
What is the conjunctiva?
A thin transparent mucous membrane covering the eye and inner surface of the eyelids.
p.10
Accessory Structures of the Eye
How is aqueous humor produced and returned to circulation?
Produced by the ciliary process and returned through the scleral venous sinus.
p.10
Accessory Structures of the Eye
What type of cells line the anterior surface of the lens?
Simple cuboidal epithelial cells.
p.15
Visual Disorders and Their Corrections
What is hyperopia?
Farsightedness, where the image is focused behind the retina.
p.3
Taste Buds and Types of Papillae
Where are Vallate papillae located?
Along the border between the anterior and posterior parts of the tongue.
p.20
Process of Hearing and Sound Transmission
What happens to the perilymph in the inner ear during hearing?
Vibration of perilymph causes the vestibular membrane to vibrate, which in turn causes vibrations in endolymph.
p.20
Central Nervous System Pathways for Hearing
Where do sensory axons from the cochlear ganglion terminate?
In the cochlear nucleus in the brainstem.
p.8
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What type of connective tissue makes up the sclera?
Dense collagenous connective tissue with elastic fibers.
p.8
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What are the two types of muscles that control pupil size?
Sphincter pupillae (parasympathetic) and dilator pupillae (sympathetic).
p.19
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
What are the two types of hair cells in the inner ear?
Inner hair cells (responsible for hearing) and outer hair cells (regulate tension on the basilar membrane).
p.4
Mechanisms of Taste Sensation
What mechanism do sugars use to cause depolarization in sweet taste receptors?
Sugars bind to receptors and activate a G protein mechanism.
p.1
Olfactory Epithelium Structure and Function
Where is the olfactory epithelium located?
In the superior nasal cavity.
p.15
Visual Disorders and Their Corrections
What is presbyopia?
Degeneration of accommodation, corrected by reading glasses.
p.15
Visual Disorders and Their Corrections
What is glaucoma?
Increased intraocular pressure due to aqueous humor buildup.
p.16
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
What separates the middle ear from the inner ear?
The oval and round windows.
p.8
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What is the significance of the cornea being avascular?
It allows for transparency and light entry without scattering.
p.8
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What is the function of the iris?
Controls the amount of light entering the pupil.
p.18
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
What type of vibrations does the basilar membrane near the helicotrema respond to?
Low-frequency vibrations.
p.4
Taste Buds and Types of Papillae
Where are the most sensitive receptors for sweet taste located?
On the tip of the tongue.
p.5
Accessory Structures of the Eye
What are the main components of the vision accessory structures?
The eyes, accessory structures, and optic nerves, tracts, and pathways.
p.17
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
Where does the foot of the stapes rest?
On the oval window, held in place by the annular ligament.
p.1
Olfactory Epithelium Structure and Function
What are olfactory hairs?
Cilia of olfactory neurons embedded in mucus.
p.14
Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction
What do rods and cones synapse with?
Bipolar cells, which then synapse with ganglion cells.
p.3
Mechanisms of Taste Sensation
What happens when the associated G protein is activated?
The α, β, and γ subunits dissociate.
p.11
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What happens to the eyes as objects move close?
The eyes rotate medially in a reflex contraction of the medial rectus.
p.10
Accessory Structures of the Eye
What is the structure of the lens?
Transparent and biconvex.
p.16
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
What is the tympanic membrane?
A thin membrane of two layers of epithelium with connective tissue between.
p.20
Process of Hearing and Sound Transmission
How is sound detected in the inner ear?
The displacement of the basilar membrane is detected by hair cells.
p.18
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
Where are the tips of inner hair cells embedded?
In the tectorial membrane.
p.5
Accessory Structures of the Eye
What are canthi?
The points where the eyelids meet, including lateral and medial canthi.
p.11
Mechanisms of Taste Sensation
What occurs during accommodation?
Ciliary muscles contract, pulling the choroid toward the lens, reducing tension on suspensory ligaments, making the lens more spherical.
p.3
Taste Buds and Types of Papillae
What are the types of papillae?
Filiform, Vallate, Foliate, and Fungiform.
p.16
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
What is the auricle or pinna made of?
Elastic cartilage covered with skin.
p.15
Visual Disorders and Their Corrections
What is retinal detachment?
A condition that can result in complete blindness.
p.15
Visual Disorders and Their Corrections
What is macular degeneration?
A condition common in older people, leading to loss in acute vision.
p.4
Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction
What is the first step in the pathways for the sense of taste?
Axons of sensory neurons synapse with taste receptors and pass through cranial nerves VII, IX, and X.
p.14
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
Where are cones most numerous?
In the fovea and macula lutea.
p.14
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
How many types of iodopsin are there and what do they respond to?
Three types that respond to blue, red, and green light.
p.14
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What allows for the interpretation of millions of colors?
Overlap in response to light from the three types of cones.
p.3
Taste Buds and Types of Papillae
What produces the bitter taste sensation?
Alkaloids, which are toxic.
p.20
Central Nervous System Pathways for Hearing
What functions do neurons in the superior olivary nucleus serve?
They send axons to the inferior colliculus, back to the inner ear, or to motor nuclei in the brainstem that send efferent fibers to the middle ear muscles.
p.4
Mechanisms of Taste Sensation
How do sodium ions contribute to the sensation of salt taste?
They diffuse through Na+ channels, resulting in depolarization.
p.17
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
What are the three ossicles of the ear?
Malleus, incus, and stapes.
p.1
Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction
How do odorants interact with olfactory neurons?
Odorants dissolve in mucus and attach to receptors, causing cilia to depolarize and initiate action potentials.
p.1
Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction
Can one receptor respond to multiple types of odors?
Yes, one receptor may respond to more than one type of odor.
p.15
Visual Disorders and Their Corrections
What is myopia?
Nearsightedness, where the focal point is too near the lens, causing the image to be focused in front of the retina.
p.10
Accessory Structures of the Eye
What are lens fibers?
Long, columnar epithelial cells found in the posterior region of the lens.
p.3
Taste Buds and Types of Papillae
What is the most sensitive receptor location for sour taste?
Lateral aspects of the tongue.
p.8
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What is the vascular tunic of the eye?
The middle layer containing most of the blood vessels and melanin.
p.8
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What does the ciliary body produce?
Aqueous humor that fills the anterior chamber.
p.5
Accessory Structures of the Eye
What is the function of eyebrows?
They shade the eyes and inhibit sweat.
p.5
Accessory Structures of the Eye
What is the tarsal plate?
A dense connective tissue layer that helps maintain the shape of the eyelid.
p.1
Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction
What is the pathway of olfactory sensory neurons?
Olfactory neurons pass through the cribiform plate to olfactory bulbs and synapse with tufted or mitral cells.
p.17
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
Where is endolymph found?
In the membranous labyrinth.
p.13
Olfactory Epithelium Structure and Function
What does cGMP phosphodiesterase do in the rhodopsin cycle?
Catalyzes the conversion of cGMP to GMP.
p.8
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What are the primary functions of the sclera?
Maintains shape, protects internal structures, and provides muscle attachment points.
p.8
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What is the choroid associated with?
It is associated with the sclera.
p.5
Accessory Structures of the Eye
What are the two types of conjunctiva?
Palpebral conjunctiva (inner surface of eyelids) and bulbar conjunctiva (anterior surface of the eye).
p.3
Mechanisms of Taste Sensation
What effect does cAMP have on ion channels?
cAMP opens ion channels, such as Na+ and Ca2+ channels.
p.20
Central Nervous System Pathways for Hearing
What are the two main pathways that axons from the cochlear nucleus project to?
The superior olivary nucleus and the inferior colliculus.
p.8
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
How does the collagen fiber structure differ between the sclera and cornea?
Collagen fibers in the sclera are large and opaque, while in the cornea they are small and transparent.
p.8
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What is the composition of the cornea's connective tissue matrix?
Contains collagen, elastic fibers, and proteoglycans.
p.16
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
What is the function of the auditory or eustachian tube?
It opens into the pharynx and equalizes pressure.
p.8
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What is the role of the cornea in the eye?
It is a transparent window that allows light to enter and bends and refracts light.
p.20
Central Nervous System Pathways for Hearing
What is the role of the inferior colliculus in hearing?
Axons from the inferior colliculus project to the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus.
p.8
Anatomy and Function of the Eye
What is the role of ciliary muscles?
They control the shape of the lens.
p.18
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
What is the function of the scala vestibuli?
It extends from the oval window to the helicotrema at the cochlear apex.
p.18
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
What type of vibrations does the basilar membrane near the oval window respond to?
High-frequency vibrations.
p.18
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
What does the scala vestibuli communicate with?
The scala vestibuli communicates with the cochlea.
p.18
Hearing Anatomy: External, Middle, and Inner Ear
How does the width of the basilar membrane change?
It increases from 0.04 mm near the oval window to 0.5 mm near the helicotrema.
