A programmed cell death process that is essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis.
It helps eliminate damaged or unnecessary cells, preventing potential harm to the organism.
To respond appropriately for survival, such as tracking nutrients and avoiding poisons.
Interpreting signals received from other cells.
Finding nutrients, avoiding poisons, and evading predators.
It allows cells to transform nutrients into usable energy, essential for cellular functions.
Mitochondria.
Apoptosis is a controlled process, while necrosis is an uncontrolled cell death due to injury.
Different types and functions of cell communication.
Light and dark.
It loses potential energy.
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate).
Cytoplasmic contents double, chromosomes duplicate in the nucleus during S phase, and centrosomes replicate.
It breaks into fragments and disappears.
Centrosomes replicate to form 2 centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of the cell during prophase and prometaphase.
The cell continues to elongate, and a nuclear envelope forms around chromosomes at each pole, establishing genetically identical daughter nuclei.
Essentially all eukaryotic cells.
Fats.
The mitotic spindle begins to form as microtubules rapidly grow out from the centrosomes.
A contracting ring of microfilaments interacting with myosin.
Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and electron transport chain.
By binary fission.
Long range and short range.
Yes, proteins can also be used for fuel.
Carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.
A single circular DNA molecule associated with proteins.
Carbon dioxide, water, heat, and ATP.
For all its activities.
Each cell responds to a limited set of signals based on its history and current state.
Yes, cells can exist as independent organisms.
To supply the third stage with electrons.
Apoptosis.
Protein complexes associated with centromeres.
Regulation at the molecular level.
Produces offspring that are identical to the original cell or organism.
In the extracellular fluid, embedded in the extracellular matrix, or bound to neighboring cells.
A distinct cell cycle control system.
The mitotic spindle eventually disassembles by depolymerization.
They are genetically identical to each other and to the original parent cell.
Glycolysis.
Chromatin, which consists of one long DNA molecule and proteins.
Energy is released and dissipated as heat and light.
In the cytosol.
Mitosis and Meiosis.
They help maintain the chromosome structure and control the activity of its genes.
By controlling both the rate of cell division and the rate of cell death.
An exergonic process.
Microtubules.
Photosynthesis.
Hundreds of different signal molecules.
Eukaryotic cells are more complex and larger than prokaryotic cells.
They yield more than twice as much ATP per gram as carbohydrates and contain many hydrogen atoms.
1 parent.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
To produce new cells for growth, repair, and reproduction.
It has specific checkpoints that regulate events.
Produces offspring that are similar to the parents but show variations in traits.
The duplication of chromosomes.
Mitosis and meiosis.
Sister chromatids separate.
G2 phase of Interphase.
Mitochondria most likely evolved from engulfed bacteria.
A form of programmed cell death that eliminates unwanted cells.
Raw materials for biosynthesis.
The production of organic molecules.
They are transferred from glucose to oxygen (O2).
The process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into energy, carbon dioxide, and water.
Chromatin uncoils.
Feedback inhibition.
The mitotic spindle is fully formed and chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.
An ordered sequence of events from the formation of a cell until its division.
Accumulation of product suppresses the process that produces the product.
The cleavage furrow.
The opposite poles of the spindle.
Cohesins are cleaved by separase.
Photosynthesis.
A cell plate from vesicles containing cell wall material.
Asexual reproduction.
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP + Heat.
By coupling exergonic and endergonic reactions.
Outward to reach the edges, dividing the contents into two cells.
Structure and functions of cells, specifically cell metabolism and the cell cycle.
Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and Electron Transport Chain.
ATP.
Assemblies of cells.
By substrate-level phosphorylation.
Cellular respiration.
They can commit suicide by activating an intracellular death program.
A cell's response to a signal can be fast or slow, depending on various factors.
Up to 32 ATP molecules.
Glucose.
Chromosomes become more tightly coiled and folded.
To build structures and perform functions.
Approximately 34%.
Glucose.
Because it attracts electrons very strongly.
The chemical reactivity of inorganic substances in the environment.
To generate chemical energy for the cell.
The ability of organisms to reproduce their own kind.
It is released as heat.
Glucose and oxygen.
On multiple chromosomes within the nucleus.
The sun.
They can grow, reproduce, and convert energy from one form into another.
Cells must respond selectively, disregarding some signals and reacting to others based on their specialized function.
Interphase and Mitotic (M) phase.
Glucose and oxygen.
ATP is the basic chemical fuel that powers most of the cell’s activities.
Sugars and fats.
Two copies of a chromosome that are joined together.
Stop an event or signal an event to proceed.
Cellular respiration.
By releasing it in small amounts stored in the chemical bonds of ATP.
Motor proteins move the chromosomes along the kinetochore microtubules.
It is the currency of energy inside cells.
Signals released by cells into the extracellular fluid that act locally.
They shorten by depolymerization at their kinetochore ends.
Both internal and external controls.
Reproductive cells: sperms and eggs.
NAD+ gains hydrogen and becomes reduced to NADH.
The plasma membrane pinches inward, dividing the cell into two.
To ensure each daughter cell receives the correct genetic material.
Anaphase.
It begins to break down, allowing spindle fibers to interact with chromosomes.
From binary fission.
Meiosis I and Meiosis II, each consisting of Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.
Growth and preparation for division.
Nucleolus forming.
Carbohydrates are broken down into glucose, which is then metabolized to produce ATP.
They duplicate, resulting in two copies called sister chromatids.
ATP stands for Adenosine Triphosphate.
In various ways, including hormones, paracrine signals, neuronal signals, and contact-dependent signaling.
Loss of hydrogen atoms (becomes oxidized) and gain of hydrogen atoms (becomes reduced).
Preparation for cell division, including cell growth and chromosome copying.
Prokaryotic chromosomes are much smaller than those of eukaryotes.
Sugar and O2.
They are secreted into the bloodstream by endocrine glands.
~90%.
The cell cycle stops.
A plasma membrane and a cell wall.
It becomes oxidized.
Carbon dioxide and water.
Prokaryotic chromosomes are circular and not enclosed in a nucleus, while eukaryotic chromosomes are linear and contained within a nucleus.
It allows flexibility of body size.
Interphase, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis.
CO2, H2O, and heat.
CO2.
Some of the released energy to make ATP.
The division of the cytoplasm.
It is available for making ATP.
Through processes like crossing over during meiosis and independent assortment of chromosomes.
Duplication of chromosomes.
NADH acts as an electron carrier, transporting electrons to the electron transport chain.
The stages include glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.
The process where the cytoplasm is divided into separate cells, usually occurring simultaneously with telophase.
2 parents.
Reproduction, growth, cell renewal & repair, and production of sperms & eggs.
Cohesins.
Centrosomes with centriole pairs and duplicated, uncondensed chromosomes.
It allows growth from a fertilized egg into an adult.
At the centromere.
The cell elongates.
They contain cell wall material for forming the cell plate.
Each eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in each cell nucleus.
In the mitochondria.
Half as many chromosomes.
Short life cycle.
The addition of a phosphate group to a molecule.
2 electrons and 2 hydrogen atoms.
Approximately 10 μm.
Telophase and Cytokinesis.
10 μm.
The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis, contributing to genetic diversity.
Metaphase plate.
The electron transport chain transfers electrons through a series of proteins, ultimately producing ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP + Heat.
ATP serves as the energy currency of the cell.
Non-reproductive cells with 2 sets of chromosomes.
The chromatin becomes highly compact and visible with a microscope.
There is an absence of cellular organelles.
Adenosine and a triphosphate tail of 3 phosphate groups.
Along axons to remote target cells.
They lengthen, moving the poles farther apart and elongating the cell.
It releases energy by transferring the 3rd phosphate from ATP to another molecule.
Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.
They actively move apart.
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.
Metaphase.
It often overlaps with telophase.
They help in maintaining the structure of the mitotic spindle.
It disappears as the cell prepares for division.
As a continuum of dynamic changes.
Daughter chromosomes.
Proteins can be deaminated and converted into intermediates that enter the Krebs cycle for ATP production.
The division of a single cell into two identical daughter cells.
2 molecules of pyruvate (3-C compound).
A type of cell division used by prokaryotic cells.
Simple burning releases energy rapidly, while cellular respiration releases energy in a controlled manner.
G1, S, and G2.
Early mitotic spindle and aster.
Reproduction.
They separate from each other and sort into separate daughter cells.
Protein structures on chromosomes where microtubules attach during cell division.
A cell-surface-bound signal molecule binds to a receptor protein on an adjacent cell.
The division of the nucleus.
Some energy is lost as heat.
By substrate-level phosphorylation.
Changes in the number or structure of chromosomes, which can lead to genetic disorders.
Nuclear envelope.
Dehydrogenase enzymes facilitate the removal of hydrogen from substrates, playing a key role in energy extraction.
Fats are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol, which can enter the metabolic pathways to produce ATP.
It has a simple genetic arrangement.
The origin of replication.
In the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells.
To produce gametes (sperm and eggs) for sexual reproduction.
Pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle.
Sugar.
The division of the nucleus.
During the S phase.
CO2 and H2O.
The two ends of the cell have equal collections of chromosomes.
The division of the cytoplasm that completes the mitotic phase.
To supply the 3rd stage with electrons and produce most of the ATP.
Types that seem intermediate between binary fission and mitosis.
Growth and increase in cytoplasm.
Cleavage furrow.
Spindle.
Metabolic pathways are interconnected, allowing for the integration of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into energy production.
