p.12
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What proteins does the liver synthesize?
Albumin, fibrinogen, prothrombin, and 50-80% of globulins (α and β, not gamma globulins).
p.1
Overview of Blood Composition
What is blood?
A complex reddish fluid that circulates continuously inside the cardiovascular system.
p.44
Factors Affecting Erythropoiesis
What is the effect of androgens on erythropoiesis?
They stimulate erythropoiesis and promote erythropoietin hormone production.
What is the major transport medium of blood?
Oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), nutrients, etc.
p.45
Role of Nutrients in Blood Formation
How do nutritional factors influence blood formation?
They provide essential vitamins and minerals necessary for the production of blood cells.
p.12
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
Which tissues are involved in the synthesis of γ globulin?
Lymphoid tissues such as the liver, spleen, bone marrow, and lymph nodes.
p.46
Role of Nutrients in Blood Formation
What are some key vitamins important for nutrition?
B12, folic acid, and vitamin C.
p.1
Overview of Blood Composition
What is the average volume of blood in a 70 kg man?
5.6 liters, which is about 8% of body weight.
p.40
Overview of Blood Composition
What organs are essential for maintaining healthy blood composition?
Bone marrow (BM) and liver.
p.33
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure and Function
What is the main constituent of Red Blood Cells (RBCs)?
Hemoglobin (Hb), which makes up 34% of RBCs.
What is the hemostatic function of blood?
It stops bleeding from injured blood vessels.
p.47
Role of Nutrients in Blood Formation
Where are proteins of high biological value found?
In the liver, kidney, and muscle.
p.48
Role of Nutrients in Blood Formation
What is the function of copper in hemoglobin synthesis?
It acts as a cofactor in hemoglobin synthesis.
p.15
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What are labile reserve proteins?
Proteins structurally similar to plasma proteins, stored in the liver.
p.44
Factors Affecting Erythropoiesis
How do glucocorticoids affect erythropoiesis?
They stimulate erythropoiesis by promoting tissue metabolism.
p.45
Role of Nutrients in Blood Formation
What are nutritional factors?
Elements in food that affect health and development.
p.38
Erythropoiesis: Formation and Regulation of RBCs
What is hypoxia?
A condition of insufficient oxygen in the tissues, which can occur at high altitudes, in athletes, or due to hemorrhage.
p.52
Importance of Iron and Vitamins in Erythropoiesis
What vitamins are essential for erythropoiesis?
Vitamins B12 and Folic Acid.
What is one of the primary functions of hemoglobin (Hb)?
Transport of O2 from the lung to tissues.
p.43
Overview of Blood Composition
What are hormones?
Chemical messengers that regulate various functions in the body.
p.22
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
How does CO2 combine with plasma proteins?
CO2 combines with the amino groups of plasma proteins to form carbamino compounds (RNHCOOH).
p.38
Erythropoiesis: Formation and Regulation of RBCs
What stimulates the increase in RBC formation during hypoxia?
Secretion of erythropoietin (EPO).
p.23
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What does Albumin transport?
Hormones (like thyroxin and steroids), amino acids, vitamins, and fatty acids.
What are the primary functions of RBCs?
Transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide.
What is the primary function of red blood cells (RBCs)?
To transport oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and return carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.
What are the homeostatic functions of blood?
Keeps extracellular fluid (ECF) constant, including pH, ABP, and temperature.
p.13
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What is the dynamic state of plasma proteins (PP)?
Plasma proteins are dynamic structures that undergo continuous breakdown and resynthesis, with the rate of formation equaling the destruction rate.
p.5
Components of Blood: Plasma and Cells
What are the main components of blood cells?
Red Blood Cells (RBCs), White Blood Cells (WBCs), and Platelets.
How do tissues utilize plasma proteins?
Tissues constantly use plasma proteins for their protein metabolism.
What is the function of platelets in blood?
To aid in blood clotting.
p.32
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure and Function
What is a notable feature of the RBC membrane?
It has a large surface area.
p.33
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure and Function
How do RBCs obtain energy?
Through anaerobic glycolysis, as they have no mitochondria.
What role does oncotic pressure play in the body?
It helps regulate blood volume and tissue fluid formation.
p.48
Importance of Iron and Vitamins in Erythropoiesis
What is the role of iron in blood?
Important for the formation of hemoglobin (Hb).
p.42
Role of Nutrients in Blood Formation
What nutrients does a healthy liver store that are essential for RBC formation?
Iron (Fe) and Vitamin B12.
p.15
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
In what situations are labile reserve proteins mobilized?
During acute protein losses, such as hemorrhage.
p.18
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What type of pressure do plasma proteins exert across the capillary wall?
Colloidal osmotic or oncotic pressure.
p.20
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What allows plasma proteins to act as weak acids or bases?
The presence of free acidic (R - COOH) and basic (R - NH) groups in plasma proteins.
p.14
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What are the sources of amino acids needed for plasma protein synthesis?
Food proteins and tissue proteins.
p.46
Role of Nutrients in Blood Formation
Which minerals are essential for nutrition?
Iron (Fe), cobalt, and copper.
p.32
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure and Function
Why are red blood cells (RBCs) referred to as corpuscles?
Because they are not true cells and have no nuclei.
p.40
Erythropoiesis: Formation and Regulation of RBCs
What role does the bone marrow play in blood health?
It is responsible for the production of blood cells.
p.24
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What is the function of steroid hormone-binding globulin?
It transports steroid hormones.
p.45
Importance of Iron and Vitamins in Erythropoiesis
What role does iron play in blood formation?
It is essential for the production of hemoglobin in red blood cells.
What role does hemoglobin play in acid-base balance?
Hb is an excellent acid-base buffer.
p.51
Importance of Iron and Vitamins in Erythropoiesis
What happens to the rate of iron absorption when the body is saturated with iron?
The rate of iron absorption decreases.
p.33
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure and Function
What role does carbonic anhydrase play in RBCs?
It helps in the transport of CO2.
p.45
Role of Nutrients in Blood Formation
What can a deficiency in nutritional factors lead to?
Anemia and other blood-related disorders.
p.19
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What is the role of γ globulins in the blood?
They defend against microorganisms.
p.51
Importance of Iron and Vitamins in Erythropoiesis
How much can the rate of iron absorption increase when iron stores are depleted?
It can increase to 5 times or more.
p.46
Importance of Iron and Vitamins in Erythropoiesis
What is the significance of folic acid in nutrition?
It is vital for DNA synthesis and red blood cell formation.
p.28
Factors Affecting Erythropoiesis
What factors can affect erythropoiesis?
Nutritional status, oxygen levels, and hormones.
p.44
Factors Affecting Erythropoiesis
What is the role of thyroid hormones in erythropoiesis?
They stimulate erythropoiesis by promoting tissue metabolism.
p.26
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure and Function
Who is the Chairman of the Medical Physiology Department?
Prof Dr. Abdelaziz M. Hussein.
p.41
Erythropoiesis: Formation and Regulation of RBCs
What is the role of healthy bone marrow?
Formation of red blood cells (RBCs).
p.48
Role of Nutrients in Blood Formation
What role does cobalt play in hemoglobin synthesis?
It serves as a cofactor in hemoglobin synthesis.
p.6
Overview of Blood Composition
What types of cells are found in blood?
Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
p.23
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What is the primary function of plasma proteins?
To transport important substances such as hormones, vitamins, and minerals.
p.6
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure and Function
What is the primary function of red blood cells?
To transport oxygen throughout the body.
p.19
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What are the main plasma proteins involved in blood clotting?
Prothrombin and fibrinogen.
p.20
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
At normal plasma pH (7.4), how are plasma proteins charged?
Negatively charged, acting as anions (weak acids).
What is the primary function of tissue oxygenation?
To supply oxygen to tissues for cellular respiration.
p.3
Components of Blood: Plasma and Cells
What are the main components of blood?
Plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
What role do white blood cells play in the body?
They are involved in the immune response.
p.50
Importance of Iron and Vitamins in Erythropoiesis
What factors can enhance iron absorption?
Vitamin C, certain acids, and the presence of heme iron from animal sources.
p.20
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What do plasma proteins combine with to form the buffer system at normal pH?
They combine with bases, mainly sodium (Na), forming the proteinic acid - Na proteinate buffer system.
How does the liver contribute to blood health?
It produces important proteins and regulates blood composition.
Why is tissue oxygenation important?
It is essential for energy production and metabolic processes in cells.
p.24
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What role does Apolipoprotein B play in the body?
It transports lipoproteins.
p.46
Importance of Iron and Vitamins in Erythropoiesis
How does vitamin B12 contribute to nutrition?
It is crucial for red blood cell formation and neurological function.
What is the function of carbonic anhydrase enzyme?
It helps in the transport of CO2.
p.8
Components of Blood: Plasma and Cells
What is plasma in the context of blood?
Plasma is the liquid component of blood that carries cells, nutrients, hormones, and waste products.
p.39
Erythropoiesis: Formation and Regulation of RBCs
What is erythropoietin?
A glycoprotein hormone that stimulates the production of RBCs.
p.3
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure and Function
What is the primary function of red blood cells?
To transport oxygen throughout the body.
p.38
Erythropoiesis: Formation and Regulation of RBCs
How does EPO affect the development of RBCs?
It accelerates all stages of development from proerythroblasts to mature RBCs.
What is the viscosity of blood compared to water?
About 3 times that of H2O.
p.43
Overview of Blood Composition
What are some examples of hormones?
Insulin, adrenaline, estrogen, and testosterone.
p.50
Importance of Iron and Vitamins in Erythropoiesis
What is the primary site of iron absorption in the body?
The duodenum, which is the first part of the small intestine.
p.14
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What type of proteins are found in meat, milk, and eggs?
Proteins of high biological value.
p.22
Control of capillary Permeability
What role do plasma proteins play in capillary permeability?
Plasma proteins close the pores in capillary walls, limiting capillary permeability.
p.46
Role of Nutrients in Blood Formation
What role do proteins play in nutrition?
They are essential for various bodily functions, including blood formation.
p.32
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure and Function
What type of membrane do RBCs have?
A plastic semipermeable membrane.
p.21
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What is the role of plasma proteins in blood?
They buffer any acid or alkali added to the blood.
p.14
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
How do plant proteins contribute to plasma protein synthesis?
They favor globulin formation.
p.10
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What are plasma proteins?
Proteins found in blood plasma that perform various functions.
p.38
Erythropoiesis: Formation and Regulation of RBCs
What role does EPO play in the bone marrow?
It enhances the transfer of stem cells to proerythroblasts.
p.50
Importance of Iron and Vitamins in Erythropoiesis
What factors can inhibit iron absorption?
Phytates, calcium, and polyphenols found in certain foods.
p.20
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What specific group in plasma proteins contributes to their buffering action?
The imidazole group of histidine residues.
Can hormones affect metabolism?
Yes, hormones play a crucial role in regulating metabolism.
p.14
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What happens to tissue proteins during starvation?
They act as a source for plasma proteins.
p.10
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
Name the main types of plasma proteins.
Albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen.
p.13
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
How is degraded albumin replaced in the body?
Through hepatic synthesis of 200 - 400 mg/kg/day.
p.50
Importance of Iron and Vitamins in Erythropoiesis
What is the difference between heme and non-heme iron?
Heme iron is found in animal products and is more easily absorbed, while non-heme iron is found in plant sources and is less efficiently absorbed.
p.27
Factors Affecting Erythropoiesis
What factors can affect erythropoiesis?
Nutritional status, oxygen levels, and hormonal regulation.
How does oxygen reach the tissues from the lungs?
Through the bloodstream, carried by red blood cells.
p.36
Erythropoiesis: Formation and Regulation of RBCs
What is erythropoiesis?
The process of red blood cell formation.
p.21
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
How do plasma proteins contribute to blood pH?
They help keep blood pH constant.
p.27
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure and Function
What is the significance of recognizing RBC count?
It helps assess overall health and diagnose various conditions.
p.24
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
How do plasma proteins provide a reservoir of substances?
They store substances when needed.
p.7
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure and Function
What is the primary function of red blood cells?
To transport oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues.
What role do white blood cells play in the body?
They are essential for the immune response and help fight infections.
p.10
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
How do plasma proteins contribute to blood viscosity?
They increase blood viscosity, affecting circulation.
p.39
Factors Affecting Erythropoiesis
Which substances can influence the secretion of erythropoietin?
Androgens, cobalt salts, adenosine, adrenaline, noradrenaline, and prostaglandins.
How does hemoglobin assist in the transport of CO2?
By helping transport CO2 from tissue to lung with the aid of carbonic anhydrase.
p.52
Importance of Iron and Vitamins in Erythropoiesis
Why are Vitamin B12 and Folic Acid important for RBC maturation?
They are required for the synthesis of DNA and the formation of TTP, an essential building block of DNA.
What is the primary function of hormones?
To communicate and coordinate activities between different organs and systems.
p.31
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure and Function
What is the shape of Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs)?
Circular, non-nucleated, biconcave discs.
What role do white blood cells (WBC) and antibodies play in blood?
They are involved in defense functions.
p.28
Erythropoiesis: Formation and Regulation of RBCs
What is erythropoiesis?
The process of red blood cell formation.
p.21
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What happens when lactic acid reacts with sodium proteinate?
It forms sodium lactate and proteinic acid.
p.11
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What is the concentration range of plasma proteins?
6 - 8 gm% (or 100 ml plasma).
p.37
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure and Function
What role does hemoglobin play in tissue oxygenation?
Hemoglobin binds to oxygen in the lungs and transports it to tissues.
p.24
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What is the function of Transthyretin?
It transports thyroid hormones.
p.23
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What is the function of Transcobalamine?
To transport vitamin B12.
p.51
Importance of Iron and Vitamins in Erythropoiesis
What happens to transferrin when all apoferritin becomes saturated with iron?
Transferrin becomes fully saturated and unable to release iron to tissues.
p.31
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure and Function
What is the thickness of a Red Blood Corpuscle at its thickest point?
About 2.5 micrometers (um).
p.24
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
Why do plasma proteins prevent rapid loss of substances in urine?
Because they are of large molecular weight and not filtered in glomeruli.
p.50
Importance of Iron and Vitamins in Erythropoiesis
How does the body's iron status affect absorption?
The body increases absorption when iron stores are low and decreases it when stores are sufficient.
p.51
Importance of Iron and Vitamins in Erythropoiesis
What does the liver do when there are excess stores of iron?
It decreases the rate of formation of apotransferrin.
p.17
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What role does albumin play in plasma?
It contributes to osmotic pressure.
What is the function of platelets in blood?
To aid in blood clotting.
p.19
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What primarily contributes to blood viscosity?
Plasma proteins, mainly fibrinogen due to its elongated shape.
p.30
Factors Affecting Erythropoiesis
In which condition is the erythrocyte count typically higher?
In persons living at high altitude.
Why is blood viscosity important?
It helps in the production of peripheral resistance and maintains arterial blood pressure.
p.49
Importance of Iron and Vitamins in Erythropoiesis
What is the physiological role of iron in the body?
It is important for the formation of hemoglobin, myoglobin, and enzymes such as cytochromes, cytochrome oxidase, peroxidase, and catalase.
p.17
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
Which proteins are involved in blood clotting?
Prothrombin and fibrinogen.
How do RBCs contribute to blood viscosity?
RBCs share in the production of blood viscosity, which maintains arterial blood pressure.
p.21
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What is the effect of sodium hydroxide on proteinic acid?
It reacts to form sodium proteinate and water.
p.11
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What are the four main types of plasma proteins?
Albumin, globulins, fibrinogen, and prothrombin.
p.10
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What is the primary function of albumin?
To maintain osmotic pressure and transport substances.
p.18
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What effect do Na ions have on oncotic pressure?
They contribute 9 mmHg to the oncotic pressure due to the Donnan's effect.
How does plasma viscosity compare to water?
Plasma is about 1.5 times that of H2O.
p.51
Importance of Iron and Vitamins in Erythropoiesis
What is the role of apoferritin in iron absorption?
When saturated with iron, it prevents transferrin from accepting more iron.
p.36
Factors Affecting Erythropoiesis
What hormones influence erythropoiesis?
Thyroid hormones, androgens, and cortisone.
What is the function of platelets in the blood?
To aid in blood clotting and prevent bleeding.
p.7
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure and Function
How do red blood cells obtain their red color?
From hemoglobin, the protein that carries oxygen.
p.17
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
How do plasma proteins regulate capillary permeability?
By maintaining osmotic balance.
p.9
Components of Blood: Plasma and Cells
What anions are present in plasma?
Chloride (Cl) and Bicarbonate (HCO3).
p.9
Components of Blood: Plasma and Cells
What is the definition of plasma?
A clear fluid in which blood cells are suspended.
p.16
Albumin/Globulin Ratio and Clinical Importance
What causes an increased A/G ratio?
Increased globulins due to severe infections or congenital agamma globulinaemia.
What state exists between plasma proteins and tissue proteins?
A state of reversible equilibrium.
What is the primary function of Red Blood Cells?
To transport oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues.
p.7
Components of Blood: Plasma and Cells
What are the main types of blood cells?
Red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets.
p.10
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What is the function of fibrinogen?
To aid in blood clotting.
p.36
Role of Nutrients in Blood Formation
What dietary components are important for erythropoiesis?
Proteins, vitamins, and minerals.
p.34
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure and Function
Why is the flexibility of RBCs important?
It allows them to be squeezed through small capillaries without rupture.
p.16
Albumin/Globulin Ratio and Clinical Importance
What causes a decreased A/G ratio?
Decreased albumin due to advanced liver disease, renal diseases, burns, or starvation.
p.16
Albumin/Globulin Ratio and Clinical Importance
What is congenital agamma globulinaemia?
A condition that leads to decreased globulin fraction.
p.39
Erythropoiesis: Formation and Regulation of RBCs
Where is erythropoietin primarily produced in adults?
90% from the kidney and 10% from the liver.
What role do white blood cells play in the body?
They are involved in the immune response and help fight infections.
p.8
Components of Blood: Plasma and Cells
What are the main components of plasma?
Water, electrolytes, proteins, nutrients, hormones, and waste products.
p.31
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure and Function
What is the average volume of a Red Blood Corpuscle?
90 to 95 cubic micrometers (u3).
p.10
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What role do globulins play in the body?
They are involved in immune responses and transport of substances.
p.8
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What role do plasma proteins play?
They help in blood clotting, immune responses, and maintaining osmotic pressure.
p.39
Erythropoiesis: Formation and Regulation of RBCs
What is the main function of erythropoietin?
Stimulates the production of RBCs and accelerates their development into mature RBCs.
p.24
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What is the significance of plasma proteins in lipid transport?
They make lipids and free fatty acids miscible with water for easy transport through plasma.
p.21
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What type of acids do plasma proteins interact with?
Both strong acids and weak acids.
How do Red Blood Cells contribute to carbon dioxide transport?
They carry carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs.
p.8
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What is the function of albumin in plasma?
It helps maintain osmotic pressure and transports various substances.
p.8
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What are globulins?
A group of proteins in plasma that play roles in immune function and transport.
p.9
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What are the main components of organic substances in plasma?
Plasma proteins (7%) and other organics (urea, creatinine, glucose, vitamins).
p.17
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What is the significance of tissue proteins in plasma?
They are used for various physiological functions.
p.16
Albumin/Globulin Ratio and Clinical Importance
What is a condition associated with increased globulins?
Severe infections leading to increased γ globulins formation.
p.36
Erythropoiesis: Formation and Regulation of RBCs
How does oxygenation relate to erythropoiesis?
Oxygenation is crucial for the production and function of red blood cells.
p.34
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure and Function
How does the large surface area of the cell membrane benefit RBCs?
It allows easy diffusion of gases through the cell membrane.
p.10
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
How do plasma proteins affect the immune system?
Globulins, particularly antibodies, play a key role in immune defense.
p.49
Importance of Iron and Vitamins in Erythropoiesis
Where is the majority of stored iron found in the body?
Mainly in the liver and reticuloendothelial system as ferritin.
p.16
Albumin/Globulin Ratio and Clinical Importance
What is the albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio?
It is the ratio of albumin and globulin concentrations in plasma.
p.34
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure and Function
What does the cell membrane do to hemoglobin (Hb) inside RBCs?
It keeps Hb inside the RBCs to prevent its loss in urine.
p.34
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure and Function
What can happen if hemoglobin is filtrated into the glomeruli?
It can cause precipitation in renal tubules and acute renal failure.
p.10
Albumin/Globulin Ratio and Clinical Importance
What is the significance of the albumin/globulin ratio?
It can indicate various health conditions.
p.39
Erythropoiesis: Formation and Regulation of RBCs
What happens to erythropoietin levels in chronic renal failure?
Leads to a lack of erythropoietin and decreased RBC formation, resulting in anemia.
p.10
Plasma Proteins: Types and Functions
What happens to plasma protein levels during liver disease?
They can decrease, affecting various bodily functions.
p.9
Components of Blood: Plasma and Cells
What cations are found in plasma?
Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K).
p.16
Albumin/Globulin Ratio and Clinical Importance
Why is the A/G ratio clinically important?
It is altered in many diseases.
p.16
Albumin/Globulin Ratio and Clinical Importance
What conditions can lead to decreased albumin?
Advanced liver disease, renal diseases, burns, and starvation.
