p.35
Pedigree Analysis in Human Genetics
Where is the oldest generation located in a pedigree?
At the top of the pedigree.
How can Mendel’s law of segregation be explained?
By the homologous pairing and segregation of chromosomes during meiosis.
p.24
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What happens to F1 plants after they are grown?
They are allowed to self-fertilize.
p.23
Monohybrid and Dihybrid Crosses
What traits did Mendel study in his dihybrid cross of pea plants?
Seed shape and seed color.
p.8
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What are hybrids in Mendel's experiments?
The offspring that result from mating two distinct individuals with different characteristics.
p.5
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What did Mendel do to prevent self-pollination in his pea plant experiments?
把花藥摘掉 (removed the anthers)
p.32
Law of Independent Assortment
How can Mendel’s law of independent assortment be explained?
By the random alignment of bivalents during metaphase of meiosis I.
p.40
Probability in Genetic Outcomes
How do you calculate the probability that a couple's first three offspring will have congenital analgesia?
Calculate the individual probability of this phenotype and multiply the individual probabilities.
p.34
Pedigree Analysis in Human Genetics
What is the main goal of pedigree analysis?
To determine the type of inheritance pattern that a gene follows.
p.22
Monohybrid and Dihybrid Crosses
What were the two characters Mendel studied in his dihybrid crosses?
Seed shape (round vs. wrinkled) and seed color (yellow vs. green).
p.9
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What is artificial cross-pollination?
Artificial cross-pollination is the manual transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower on a different plant.
p.39
Probability in Genetic Outcomes
What is the probability of an outcome?
The chance that an outcome will occur in the future.
p.40
Probability in Genetic Outcomes
What does a probability calculation allow us to predict?
The likelihood that an outcome will occur in the future.
p.35
Pedigree Analysis in Human Genetics
Where is the most recent generation located in a pedigree?
At the bottom of the pedigree.
p.29
Punnett Squares and Genotypic Ratios
How do you calculate the probability of a specific genotype using the forked-line method?
By multiplying the probabilities of each individual gene's outcome.
p.17
Punnett Squares and Genotypic Ratios
What must be known to use a Punnett square?
The genotype of the parents.
How many alleles does each parent transmit to their offspring according to Mendel's law of segregation?
Each parent transmits only ONE allele to each offspring.
p.37
Pedigree Analysis in Human Genetics
What is the likelihood of offspring being affected if both parents have cystic fibrosis?
100% of the offspring will be affected.
What does the term 'phenotype' refer to?
Observable traits of an organism (i.e., tall and dwarf).
p.11
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What is cross-fertilization?
Cross-fertilization is when pollen and egg are derived from different plants.
p.3
Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
How can the principles of inheritance proposed by Mendel be explained today?
By chromosomes (alleles) and their behavior during cell division.
p.7
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What type of alleles do true-breeding strains have?
True-breeding strains have the same alleles.
p.23
Monohybrid and Dihybrid Crosses
What is a dihybrid cross?
A cross between two different strains of true-breeding plants that differ in two traits.
p.23
Monohybrid and Dihybrid Crosses
What were the characteristics of the second pea plant in Mendel's dihybrid cross?
Wrinkled and green seeds.
p.25
Law of Independent Assortment
What does Mendel's law of independent assortment state about the segregation of hereditary determinants during gamete formation?
The segregation of any pair of hereditary determinants is independent of the segregation of other pairs.
p.41
Probability in Genetic Outcomes
Are the phenotypes of the first, second, and third offspring independent outcomes?
Yes, they are independent outcomes.
p.37
Pedigree Analysis in Human Genetics
What causes abnormalities in cystic fibrosis?
An imbalance of ions across the plasma membranes of cells.
What is present in a gamete according to Mendel's law of segregation?
Only ONE allele is present in a gamete (i.e., germ cell).
Which allele is dominant and which is recessive in Mendel's experiments on plant height?
T is the dominant allele; t is the recessive allele.
What happens when the two hereditary factors in a pea plant are different?
One factor is dominant (its effect can be seen) and the other is recessive (its effect is not expressed).
p.11
Mendelian Inheritance Patterns
What are the Chinese terms for tall and dwarf plants?
高莖 (tall) and 矮莖 (dwarf).
p.3
Gregor Mendel's Contributions to Genetics
What are the two important laws proposed by Mendel?
Law of segregation (分離律) and Law of independent assortment (獨立分配律).
p.31
Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
What does each parent contribute to its offspring at fertilization?
Each parent contributes one set of chromosomes.
p.24
Law of Independent Assortment
What does the F2 generation support and refute?
The F2 generation supports the independent assortment model and refutes the linkage model.
p.38
Pedigree Analysis in Human Genetics
What is the outcome for the offspring of two affected individuals if the disease follows a recessive pattern of inheritance?
All offspring will be affected.
p.34
Pedigree Analysis in Human Genetics
How does pedigree analysis compare to Mendel's experiments?
Pedigree analysis is less definitive but provides important clues about inheritance patterns.
p.22
Monohybrid and Dihybrid Crosses
What did Mendel analyze in his study of dihybrid crosses?
Crosses involving two different characters.
p.9
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What is self-pollination?
Self-pollination is the process where pollen from a flower's anther fertilizes the same flower's stigma or another flower on the same plant.
p.9
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What is cross-pollination?
Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of a flower on a different plant.
p.20
Punnett Squares and Genotypic Ratios
What are the predicted phenotypes of the offspring from a cross between a heterozygous purple-flowered plant (Pp) and a white-flowered plant (pp)?
50% purple flowers and 50% white flowers
What theory of inheritance did Mendel's results support?
Mendel's results supported a particulate theory of inheritance.
p.27
Monohybrid and Dihybrid Crosses
What is a three-factor cross in genetics?
A cross involving three genes, each with two alleles.
p.30
Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
What happens to chromosomes during cell division and gamete formation?
Each type of chromosome retains its individuality.
p.30
Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
How is one member of each chromosome pair inherited in eukaryotic cells?
One member of each pair is inherited from the female parent and the other from the male parent.
p.3
Law of Independent Assortment
What does the Law of Independent Assortment (獨立分配律) state?
Genes for different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes.
p.5
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What type of pollination did Mendel use in his study of pea plants?
人工異花授粉 (artificial cross-pollination)
p.1
Mendelian Inheritance Patterns
What is Mendelian inheritance?
Mendelian inheritance refers to the patterns of inheritance that are characteristic of organisms that reproduce sexually, based on the principles first described by Gregor Mendel.
p.7
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What are true-breeding strains?
True-breeding strains are the ones that produce offspring like themselves.
p.7
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
Do traits in true-breeding strains vary from generation to generation?
No, a trait does not vary from generation to generation in true-breeding strains.
p.28
Punnett Squares and Genotypic Ratios
How can we simplify the analysis of a three-factor cross?
By considering each gene separately.
p.12
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What is a true-breeding strain or line?
A variety that continues to produce the same trait after several generations of self-fertilization.
p.28
Punnett Squares and Genotypic Ratios
What tool can be used to analyze each gene in a three-factor cross?
A Punnett square can be made for each gene.
p.18
Mendelian Inheritance Patterns
What are the genotypes of the male and female parents?
Both parents have the genotype Tt.
p.18
Mendelian Inheritance Patterns
What are the possible gametes that the female parent can produce?
The female parent can produce gametes with T or t.
p.24
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
Why are the two categories of F2 seeds called nonparentals?
Because these combinations are not found in the true-breeding plants of the parental generation.
p.18
Punnett Squares and Genotypic Ratios
What are the possible genotypes of the offspring from parents with genotypes Tt and Tt?
The possible genotypes of the offspring are TT, Tt, and tt.
p.38
Pedigree Analysis in Human Genetics
What must an individual inherit to exhibit a disease caused by a recessive allele?
Two copies of the mutant allele.
p.4
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What are the two methods by which plants can reproduce?
Cross fertilization and self fertilization.
p.38
Pedigree Analysis in Human Genetics
What is the probability that two heterozygous unaffected individuals will have an affected offspring?
1/4 of their offspring, on average.
p.4
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What is the term for an experiment where two distinct individuals with different characteristics are bred?
A cross or hybridization.
p.8
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What is hybridization in the context of Mendel's study of pea plants?
Mating two distinct individuals with different characteristics.
p.4
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
How was Mendel able to perform artificial cross-fertilization on pea plants?
By prying open immature flowers and removing the anthers before pollen was produced.
p.25
Law of Independent Assortment
How many genotypic combinations are possible according to Mendel's law of independent assortment?
16 genotypic combinations
p.10
Gregor Mendel's Contributions to Genetics
What did Mendel study in his further experiments on plants?
Different morphological characteristics of plants.
p.8
Gregor Mendel's Contributions to Genetics
Which plant did Mendel choose to study the natural laws governing plant hybrids?
The garden pea, Pisum sativum.
p.10
Gregor Mendel's Contributions to Genetics
What was the purpose of Mendel's experiments on plants?
To determine the relationships that govern hereditary traits.
p.29
Punnett Squares and Genotypic Ratios
Why does the Punnett square become cumbersome for three genes?
Because it requires 64 squares.
p.10
Gregor Mendel's Contributions to Genetics
What is the rationale behind Mendel's experimental design called?
An empirical approach (經驗方法).
p.31
Law of Independent Assortment
What happens to nonhomologous chromosomes during the formation of haploid cells?
They segregate independently of each other.
p.31
Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
Are the maternal and paternal sets of homologous chromosomes functionally equivalent?
Yes, each set carries a full complement of genes.
p.28
Punnett Squares and Genotypic Ratios
What is a three-factor cross?
A genetic cross involving three different genes.
p.12
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What is produced by crossing true-breeding parents to each other?
The offspring that constitute the first filial generation (F1 generation).
p.18
Mendelian Inheritance Patterns
What are the possible gametes that the male parent can produce?
The male parent can produce gametes with T or t.
p.12
Monohybrid and Dihybrid Crosses
What type of cross did Mendel use in his first experiments?
Monohybrid cross, which involves crossing only two variants of one character at a time.
p.38
Pedigree Analysis in Human Genetics
What are human geneticists routinely interested in regarding genetic diseases?
Whether a genetic disease is inherited as a recessive or dominant trait.
p.34
Pedigree Analysis in Human Genetics
Why can't researchers control parental crosses when studying human traits?
Because it is not ethical or feasible to control human reproduction.
p.34
Pedigree Analysis in Human Genetics
What is a pedigree in the context of genetics?
A chart representing family relationships used to study inheritance patterns.
p.8
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What is an example of hybridization in Mendel's experiments?
Breeding a purple-flowered plant with a white-flowered plant.
p.41
Probability in Genetic Outcomes
How do you calculate the probability of the first three offspring all having congenital analgesia?
Multiply 1/4 three times.
p.10
Mendelian Inheritance Patterns
What did Mendel find about each character in plants?
Each character was found as two variants that were decisively different from each other.
p.8
Gregor Mendel's Contributions to Genetics
Why did Mendel choose the garden pea for his experiments?
Because it exists with distinct characters or traits and its structures allow easy crosses.
p.35
Pedigree Analysis in Human Genetics
How are siblings represented in a pedigree?
By two or more squares and/or circles projecting downward from the same horizontal line.
p.29
Punnett Squares and Genotypic Ratios
List the possible combinations of dominant and recessive traits in a three-factor cross.
Dominant, dominant, dominant; Dominant, dominant, recessive; Dominant, recessive, dominant; Dominant, recessive, recessive; Recessive, dominant, dominant; Recessive, dominant, recessive; Recessive, recessive, dominant; Recessive, recessive, recessive.
p.36
Pedigree Analysis in Human Genetics
Which individuals are affected by a genetic disease in the given pedigree?
Individuals II-3, III-4, and III-7.
What does Mendel's law of segregation state?
Each parent has identical copies of the height gene, i.e., they are homozygous with respect to that gene.
p.13
Monohybrid and Dihybrid Crosses
What did the F1 generation show in Mendel's monohybrid crosses?
The F1 generation showed only one of the two parental traits.
p.17
Punnett Squares and Genotypic Ratios
What is an example of a cross that can be analyzed using a Punnett square?
A cross of heterozygous tall plants (Tt).
p.17
Punnett Squares and Genotypic Ratios
What is a Punnett square used for?
To predict the outcome of genetic crosses.
p.20
Mendelian Inheritance Patterns
What is the genotype of a heterozygous pea plant with regard to flower color?
Pp (where P is the allele for purple and p is the allele for white)
p.22
Monohybrid and Dihybrid Crosses
What pattern of inheritance did Mendel follow in his two-factor cross?
The patterns of inheritance for both seed shape and seed color.
What does it mean for parents to be homozygous with respect to a gene?
Both parents are carrying the same allele of the gene.
What does the Law of Segregation state about hereditary factors in a pea plant?
A pea plant contains two discrete hereditary factors, one from each parent.
p.26
Law of Independent Assortment
What does Mendel's law of independent assortment state?
It states that the alleles of different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation.
p.2
Mendelian Inheritance Patterns
What did Mendel gather a large amount of during his experiments?
Quantitative data concerning the outcomes of crosses between plants with different traits.
p.3
Gregor Mendel's Contributions to Genetics
Who laid the foundation for the understanding of inheritance?
Gregor J. Mendel through his study of pea plants, Pisum sativum.
p.2
Gregor Mendel's Contributions to Genetics
Which three biologists independently rediscovered Mendel's studies?
Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak.
p.36
Pedigree Analysis in Human Genetics
Who are the parents of individuals III-1, III-2, and III-3 in the pedigree?
Individuals II-1 and II-2.
p.22
Law of Independent Assortment
What was Mendel trying to determine about the two factors in his dihybrid crosses?
Whether the two factors were linked or independent.
p.20
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What does it mean for a plant to be heterozygous with regard to flower color?
It has one dominant allele (P) and one recessive allele (p), making it not true-breeding.
What are the possible relationships between the two hereditary factors in a pea plant according to the Law of Segregation?
The two factors may be identical or different.
p.26
Law of Independent Assortment
How many possible combinations of offspring are there when crossing two pea plants heterozygous for one gene?
4 (2 male gametes × 2 female gametes).
p.6
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
How did Mendel prevent accidental self-pollination or pollination by insects or wind?
He protected the experimental plants from accidental self-pollination or pollination by insects or the wind.
What does the Law of Segregation (分離律) state?
Each individual has two alleles for each gene, which segregate during gamete formation, so each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.
p.17
Punnett Squares and Genotypic Ratios
Who proposed the method of the Punnett square?
British geneticist Reginald Punnett.
What does Mendel's law of segregation state?
Two copies of a gene, i.e., alleles, segregate from each other during transmission from parent to offspring.
p.37
Pedigree Analysis in Human Genetics
What protein does the cystic fibrosis gene code for?
The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR).
p.37
Pedigree Analysis in Human Genetics
Why might there never be cases where two affected individuals produce offspring for certain human genetic diseases?
Because these diseases may limit survival or fertility (or both).
p.27
Monohybrid and Dihybrid Crosses
If a pea plant is heterozygous for three genes (Tt, Rr, Yy), how many different types of gametes can it produce?
8 different types of gametes.
p.27
Monohybrid and Dihybrid Crosses
How many possible combinations of gametes are there when crossing two pea plants heterozygous for three genes?
64 possible combinations.
p.13
Monohybrid and Dihybrid Crosses
What was the ratio of the two parental traits in the F2 generation of Mendel's monohybrid crosses?
The F2 generation showed an approximately 3:1 ratio of the two parental traits.
p.14
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What is the characteristic of the parents in the P cross in Mendel's experiments?
Both parents are true-breeding plants.
p.30
Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
How are chromosomes passed along from generation to generation?
Chromosomes are replicated and passed along from parent to offspring and from cell to cell during the development of a multicellular organism.
p.30
Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
What happens to chromosome pairs during meiosis?
One of the two members of each pair segregates into one daughter cell, and its homolog segregates into the other daughter cell.
p.27
Monohybrid and Dihybrid Crosses
What are the three traits considered in the three-factor cross example provided?
Height, seed shape, and seed color.
p.36
Pedigree Analysis in Human Genetics
What do the symbols in the pedigree denote?
Phenotypes, not genotypes.
p.14
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What type of offspring do true-breeding plants produce?
They produce offspring with the same traits.
What does the Law of Segregation state?
Each individual has two alleles for each trait, which segregate during gamete formation, so each gamete carries only one allele for each trait.
p.3
Mendelian Inheritance Patterns
What do the patterns of inheritance explain?
How traits are passed from parents to offspring.
p.26
Law of Independent Assortment
How many possible combinations of offspring are there when crossing two pea plants heterozygous for two genes?
16 (4 male gametes × 4 female gametes).
What do the alleles T and t represent in Mendel's experiments?
T and t represent the alleles for plant height.
p.13
Mendelian Inheritance Patterns
What did Mendel's results refute regarding the mechanism of heredity?
Mendel's results refuted a blending mechanism of heredity.
p.11
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What are the Chinese terms for self-fertilization and cross-fertilization?
自花授粉 (self-fertilization) and 異花授粉 (cross-fertilization).
p.30
Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
What is the ploidy level of eukaryotic cells?
Eukaryotic cells are diploid.
p.6
Gregor Mendel's Contributions to Genetics
What was the title of Mendel's published work?
Experiments in Plant Hybridization.
What is the genotype of the F1 generation in Mendel's experiments?
The F1 generation is heterozygous (Tt).
p.26
Law of Independent Assortment
How many possible gametes can an individual make according to Mendel's law of independent assortment?
2^n, where n is the number of genes.
p.2
Gregor Mendel's Contributions to Genetics
What was the title of Mendel's published work?
Experiments in Plant Hybridization.
p.6
Gregor Mendel's Contributions to Genetics
What type of records did Mendel keep during his experiments?
Accurate records that included quantitative analysis.
What does the term 'genotype' refer to?
The genetic composition of an individual (i.e., TT, tt, and Tt).
p.11
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What is self-fertilization?
Self-fertilization is when pollen and egg are derived from the same plant.
p.6
True-Breeding Strains and Hybridization
What did Mendel do to ensure controlled mating in his experiments?
He carefully controlled the mating (or crossing) of pea plants.
p.27
Monohybrid and Dihybrid Crosses
What are the possible gametes for a pea plant heterozygous for Tt, Rr, and Yy?
TRY, TRy, TrY, tRY, trY, Try, tRy, and try.
p.6
Gregor Mendel's Contributions to Genetics
Why was Mendel's work initially ignored?
Due to a lack of understanding of chromosome transmission and poor quality of microscopy.
