p.2
Function of the Nasal Cavity and Sinuses
What happens during swallowing to prevent food from entering the lower respiratory tract?
The larynx is elevated and the epiglottis folds over the glottis.
p.1
Function of the Nasal Cavity and Sinuses
What is the primary function of the nasal cavity in the respiratory system?
To filter, warm, and humidify the air we breathe.
p.1
Function of the Nasal Cavity and Sinuses
How does the nasal cavity contribute to the sense of smell?
It houses olfactory receptors that detect airborne chemicals.
p.2
Function of the Nasal Cavity and Sinuses
What is the role of the pharynx?
It serves as a common pathway for food and air.
p.2
Function of the Nasal Cavity and Sinuses
What is the primary function of the paranasal sinuses?
To secrete mucus that filters, moistens, and warms incoming air.
p.2
Function of the Nasal Cavity and Sinuses
What is the function of the larynx?
Phonation and swallowing.
p.1
Anatomy of the Respiratory System
What structures are included in the anatomy of the nasal cavity?
Nasal septum, turbinates (conchae), and olfactory receptors.
p.1
Anatomy of the Respiratory System
What role do the turbinates play in the nasal cavity?
They increase surface area for air filtration and humidification.
p.1
Anatomy of the Respiratory System
What is the significance of the nasal septum?
It divides the nasal cavity into two nostrils.
p.2
Structure and Function of the Trachea
What is the anatomical range of the trachea?
C6 to T5, marking the start of the lower respiratory tract.
p.12
Lung Function Tests and Spirometry
What does an ABG analysis measure?
Levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and blood pH.
p.3
Bronchi and Bronchioles Dynamics
What is bronchoconstriction?
The process that decreases air flow into the alveoli.
p.4
Lung Anatomy and Bronchopulmonary Segments
Why does the left lung have fewer lobes than the right lung?
Due to the presence of the heart.
p.8
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What are the two main phases of breathing?
Inspiration (air flows into lungs) and expiration (gases exit lungs).
p.15
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What does Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) represent?
The additional air that can be inhaled after a normal inhalation.
p.14
Lung Function Tests and Spirometry
What does a normal FEV1/FVC ratio indicate?
It indicates normal lung function, typically seen in restrictive lung disease.
p.11
Transport of Gases and Hemoglobin Saturation
What happens to hemoglobin's O2 release at low PO2?
Hb releases O2 at low PO2 in tissues.
p.7
Pleura and Intrapleural Pressure
What is the function of pleural fluid?
To fill and lubricate the pleural cavity.
p.14
Alveoli and Gas Exchange Mechanism
What factors can affect lung recoil?
Inflamed airway wall, increased mucus, and muscle contraction.
p.11
Transport of Gases and Hemoglobin Saturation
Why can't the body rely solely on dissolved O2 for transport?
Because O2 has low solubility in plasma.
p.9
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What drives gas molecules to move in respiration?
From high to low partial pressure to attain equilibrium.
p.9
Transport of Gases and Hemoglobin Saturation
What is partial pressure in a gas mixture?
The pressure contributed by a single gas in a mixture of gases.
p.9
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What is necessary for efficient gaseous exchange?
A sufficient partial pressure gradient.
p.15
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What is Vital Capacity (VC)?
The total amount of exchangeable air, calculated as VC = IRV + TV + ERV.
p.11
Transport of Gases and Hemoglobin Saturation
What is the typical O2 content in blood when fully occupied?
20 ml O2 per 100 ml blood.
p.13
Lung Function Tests and Spirometry
What position should a patient be in during a spirometry test?
Sitting position with a nose clip.
p.7
Pleura and Intrapleural Pressure
What is tension pneumothorax?
Air enters the pleural cavity in one direction and cannot escape, leading to high pressure that compresses the lung.
p.10
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What cardiovascular problems can cause a ventilation-perfusion mismatch?
Pulmonary embolism and cardiac right to left shunt.
p.8
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What happens during inspiration?
The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract, increasing intrapulmonary volume and decreasing intrapulmonary pressure.
p.8
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What occurs during expiration?
The diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, decreasing volume and increasing pressure, leading to air flow out.
p.8
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What triggers forced breathing?
Increased CO2 levels activate chemoreceptors that send signals to the ventral respiratory group (VRG).
p.3
Bronchi and Bronchioles Dynamics
What is the role of smooth muscle in the bronchi and bronchioles?
It controls the amount of air flow into the alveoli.
p.13
Lung Function Tests and Spirometry
How is the FEV1/FVC ratio used in diagnosis?
It reflects the proportion of vital capacity and helps differentiate between obstructive and restrictive lung diseases.
p.6
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What is postural drainage?
A technique to facilitate drainage of pulmonary secretion by gravity.
p.8
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What is the relationship between intrapleural pressure and intrapulmonary pressure?
Intrapleural pressure is always less than intrapulmonary pressure, which helps keep alveoli inflated.
p.14
Lung Function Tests and Spirometry
What happens if sufficient time is given during forced exhalation?
Most air can be expelled, indicating normal FVC.
p.3
Bronchi and Bronchioles Dynamics
What is unique about terminal bronchioles?
They contain no cartilage.
p.7
Pleura and Intrapleural Pressure
What happens during inspiration?
The lungs expand without being compressed by the pleura.
p.12
Transport of Gases and Hemoglobin Saturation
Why is CO2 transportation important in the body?
It helps maintain acid-base balance and is a waste product of metabolism.
p.10
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What is meant by ventilation-perfusion coupling?
The relationship between air flow (ventilation) and blood flow (perfusion) in the lungs.
p.15
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What is Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)?
The extra volume of air that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation.
p.15
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
How is Inspiratory Capacity (IC) calculated?
IC = Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) + Tidal Volume (TV).
p.3
Bronchi and Bronchioles Dynamics
What happens to cartilage and smooth muscle as you move down the bronchi and bronchioles?
Cartilage decreases and smooth muscle increases.
p.3
Bronchi and Bronchioles Dynamics
What is bronchodilation?
The process that increases air flow into the alveoli.
p.3
Bronchi and Bronchioles Dynamics
How many secondary bronchi are in the right lung?
Three secondary bronchi supply the right lung lobe.
p.7
Pleura and Intrapleural Pressure
What causes traumatic pneumothorax?
Blunt trauma or penetrating injury to the chest wall.
p.14
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What is the effect of obstructive lung disease on exhalation?
It affects the ability to exhale air quickly.
p.14
Lung Function Tests and Spirometry
What happens to FVC in restrictive lung disease?
There is a decrease in FVC with proportionally normal FEV1.
p.14
Lung Function Tests and Spirometry
What is the significance of the Volume-Time loop in spirometry?
It helps assess lung volumes over time during breathing.
p.14
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What is the impact of increased workload for breathing?
It makes it hard to exhale all air in the lungs.
p.3
Bronchi and Bronchioles Dynamics
How many secondary bronchi are in the left lung?
Two secondary bronchi supply the left lung lobe.
p.13
Lung Function Tests and Spirometry
What happens in airway obstruction?
Narrowing of smaller bronchi or damage prevents full lung expansion.
p.5
Lung Anatomy and Bronchopulmonary Segments
Can bronchopulmonary segments be individually removed?
Yes, they can be individually removed.
p.6
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
Which lung parts are primarily affected by gravity in an upright position?
Right upper lobe and left non-lingular part.
p.6
Alveoli and Gas Exchange Mechanism
How many alveoli are present in the lungs?
Approximately 300 million.
p.6
Alveoli and Gas Exchange Mechanism
What enhances the efficacy of gas exchange in alveoli?
Densely covered pulmonary capillaries.
p.6
Alveoli and Gas Exchange Mechanism
What is the respiratory membrane composed of?
Capillary endothelium, basement membrane, and alveolar epithelium.
p.2
Structure and Function of the Trachea
What is the function of the trachealis muscle?
It allows room for the esophagus to enlarge.
p.2
Structure and Function of the Trachea
How do cilia function in the trachea?
They help move mucus upward to be coughed out.
p.7
Pleura and Intrapleural Pressure
What does the parietal pleura cover?
The thoracic wall and diaphragm, and continues around the heart and between the lungs.
p.7
Pleura and Intrapleural Pressure
What is secondary spontaneous pneumothorax (SSP)?
Occurs in individuals with significant lung disease, such as asthma or COPD.
p.15
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What is Tidal Volume (TV)?
The amount of gas inhaled and exhaled during quiet breathing.
p.8
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What is the role of accessory muscles during inspiration?
They assist the external intercostal muscles and diaphragm in expanding the thoracic cavity.
p.11
Transport of Gases and Hemoglobin Saturation
Under what conditions does hemoglobin bind more O2?
At high partial pressure of O2 (PO2) in the lungs.
p.11
Transport of Gases and Hemoglobin Saturation
What is the significance of the red arrow indicating O2 unloading?
It shows that Hb can unload 1 O2 while still having 3 O2 capacity, allowing for more O2 release during exercise.
p.11
Transport of Gases and Hemoglobin Saturation
How does temperature affect hemoglobin's affinity for O2?
Increased temperature decreases Hb's affinity for O2, promoting O2 unloading.
p.13
Lung Function Tests and Spirometry
What is the purpose of spirometry?
To assess lung volume and function.
p.13
Lung Function Tests and Spirometry
What is the function of an incentive spirometer?
To train lung expansion and improve ventilation.
p.7
Pleura and Intrapleural Pressure
What is the difference between closed and open pneumothorax?
Closed pneumothorax allows air to move from the lung to the cavity, while open pneumothorax allows air to flow from the chest to the outside.
p.12
Transport of Gases and Hemoglobin Saturation
How is CO2 primarily transported in the blood?
As bicarbonate ions (HCO3-).
p.10
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What respiratory conditions can induce a ventilation-perfusion mismatch?
COPD, chronic bronchitis, pneumonia, and asthma.
p.8
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What mechanical process is involved in pulmonary ventilation?
Volume change in the thoracic cavity leads to pressure change, which causes gas flow to equalize pressure.
p.8
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What contributes to the natural elasticity of the lungs during expiration?
The natural elasticity of lung tissue and the thin film of pleural fluid that creates surface tension.
p.8
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What is the function of the respiratory rhythmicity center?
It controls the rhythm of breathing and can modify activity in response to external inputs.
p.6
Alveoli and Gas Exchange Mechanism
What happens to alveoli during inspiration and expiration?
They expand during inspiration and recoil during expiration.
p.7
Pleura and Intrapleural Pressure
What does the visceral pleura cover?
The external surface of the lungs.
p.13
Lung Function Tests and Spirometry
What is a key difference between spirometry and a peak flow meter?
Spirometry measures more data (FEV1, FVC) while a peak flow meter is cheaper and used for self-monitoring.
p.7
Pleura and Intrapleural Pressure
What is primary spontaneous pneumothorax (PSP)?
Occurs in younger adults with no underlying condition and self-resolves.
p.5
Lung Anatomy and Bronchopulmonary Segments
What is a characteristic of bronchopulmonary segments?
They have their own blood supply and connective tissue, making them individual entities.
p.15
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What is Residual Volume (RV)?
The gas remaining in the lungs after maximum expiration.
p.15
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What does Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) consist of?
FRC = Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) + Residual Volume (RV).
p.15
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
How is Total Lung Capacity (TLC) defined?
TLC is the sum of all lung volumes, calculated as TLC = Inspiratory Capacity (IC) + Functional Residual Capacity (FRC).
p.2
Structure and Function of the Trachea
What shape does the trachea have and why?
C-shaped, to prevent external damage and allow for expansion.
p.13
Lung Function Tests and Spirometry
What is the procedure for performing spirometry?
Take a deep breath in and blow as fast and hard as you can for 6 seconds (3 seconds for children).
p.3
Bronchi and Bronchioles Dynamics
Why is aspiration pneumonia more common in the right lung?
Because the right bronchus is more vertical, making it easier for food to enter.
p.13
Lung Function Tests and Spirometry
What are examples of restrictive lung diseases?
Interstitial lung disease, pneumoconiosis, pulmonary fibrosis.
p.10
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What does a mismatch in ventilation-perfusion indicate?
Areas that are well perfused but poorly ventilated or vice versa.
p.6
Physiology of Pulmonary Ventilation
What techniques are used to loosen mucus in the lungs?
Percussion, vibration, and shaking.
p.6
Alveoli and Gas Exchange Mechanism
What is the primary function of alveoli?
To provide surface area for gas exchange.
p.6
Alveoli and Gas Exchange Mechanism
What is the role of Type II alveolar cells?
To produce surfactant and reduce surface tension.
p.11
Transport of Gases and Hemoglobin Saturation
How does hemoglobin meet metabolic needs during exercise?
By increasing O2 unloading to active muscles.
p.13
Lung Function Tests and Spirometry
What does a peak flow meter measure?
Peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR).
p.13
Lung Function Tests and Spirometry
What are examples of obstructive lung diseases?
Asthma, cystic fibrosis, COPD (emphysema, chronic bronchitis).
p.14
Lung Function Tests and Spirometry
What is indicated by a decreased FEV1/FVC ratio (less than 70%)?
A problem in exhalation ability, typically seen in obstructive lung disease.
p.11
Transport of Gases and Hemoglobin Saturation
How does hemoglobin (Hb) transport O2?
Hb binds to 4 O2 molecules in a rapid and reversible process.
p.14
Lung Function Tests and Spirometry
What does the Flow-Volume loop in spirometry illustrate?
It illustrates the flow of air during inhalation and exhalation.
p.7
Pleura and Intrapleural Pressure
What is the pleura?
A thin, double-layered, fluid-secreting membrane.
p.3
Bronchi and Bronchioles Dynamics
How many secondary bronchi supply one lung lobe?
One secondary bronchi supplies one lung lobe.
p.13
Lung Function Tests and Spirometry
What does FEV1 measure?
Volume of air exhaled in the first second of forced expiration.
p.11
Transport of Gases and Hemoglobin Saturation
What effect does a decrease in blood pH have on hemoglobin?
It weakens the hemoglobin-oxygen bond, promoting O2 release.
p.2
Structure and Function of the Trachea
What role do goblet cells play in the trachea?
They secrete mucus to trap particles, serving as the first line of immune defense.
p.7
Pleura and Intrapleural Pressure
What prevents the lungs from collapsing?
The pressure difference between intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures.
p.7
Pleura and Intrapleural Pressure
What is pneumothorax?
The presence of air inside the pleural cavity, leading to lung collapse.
