p.14
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What is an embolus?
A dislodged thrombus that can travel through the bloodstream.
p.25
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What part of the brain regulates blood pressure?
The cardiovascular centre (CVC) in the medulla oblongata.
p.32
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
Why are blood vessels essential?
They are essential for achieving the functions of blood.
p.31
Venous Return Mechanisms
What factors influence venous return?
Factors include muscle pump action, respiratory pump, and venous valves.
p.13
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What is the primary function of blood clotting?
To prevent excessive bleeding from damaged blood vessels.
p.19
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What is the role of a receptor in homeostasis?
To detect changes in the environment, such as thermoreceptors and mechanoreceptors.
p.17
Blood Flow and Haemodynamics
What factors can affect haemodynamics?
Blood viscosity, vessel diameter, and cardiac output.
p.20
Blood Flow and Haemodynamics
What is haemodynamics?
The study of factors affecting blood flow.
Do platelets have a nucleus?
No, they do not have a nucleus.
p.30
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the function of veins?
To return deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
How does blood contribute to body temperature regulation?
By distributing heat throughout the body.
p.18
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What factors affect blood pressure?
Cardiac output, blood volume, and resistance in blood vessels.
p.25
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What is the role of the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) in blood pressure regulation?
It is inhibitory and decreases heart rate.
p.19
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What is homeostasis?
A state of steady internal, physical and chemical conditions maintained by living systems for optimal functioning.
p.17
Blood Flow and Haemodynamics
What role does haemodynamics play in the body?
It refers to the dynamics of blood flow and the forces involved in circulation.
p.32
Blood Flow and Haemodynamics
What is pulmonary circulation?
The circulation of blood to the lungs.
What is the role of red blood cells?
To transport oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs.
p.13
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What are the main components involved in the clotting process?
Platelets, clotting factors, and fibrin.
p.24
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What causes blood pressure?
The pumping action of the heart when ventricles contract.
What are the primary functions of blood?
To transport nutrients, oxygen, waste products, and hormones; to regulate body temperature and pH; and to protect against disease.
What constitutes the remaining 1.5% of plasma?
Electrolytes, nutrients, waste products, and regulatory substances.
What are the main functions of blood?
Transport, protection, and homeostasis.
p.12
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What is prothrombinase?
An enzyme that converts prothrombin to thrombin.
p.25
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What does the vasomotor centre (VC) in the medulla oblongata control?
It impacts the constriction or dilation of blood vessels.
p.21
Blood Flow and Haemodynamics
What does cardiac output (CO) measure?
The volume of blood that circulates through systemic (pulmonary) blood vessels per minute.
p.30
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the primary function of blood vessels?
To transport blood throughout the body.
p.33
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What are the main types of blood vessels?
Arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins.
p.11
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What does haemostasis mean?
To reduce blood loss if a vessel wall is damaged.
p.26
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What is the effect of decreased inhibitory parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) activity on the SA node?
It increases heart rate (HR).
p.19
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What is the function of the control center in homeostasis?
To process information and coordinate responses, such as the respiratory center and renin-angiotensin system.
p.33
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What are arterioles?
Small branches of arteries that lead to capillaries.
p.19
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What is an effector in the context of homeostasis?
The target acted on to return the system to a normal state.
p.33
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the primary function of capillaries?
To facilitate the exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nutrients between blood and tissues.
p.27
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
How does angiotensin II affect systemic vascular resistance?
It increases systemic vascular resistance by causing vasoconstriction.
What are globulins in plasma responsible for?
They are large proteins that include immunoglobulins (antibodies) that fight disease.
p.14
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What can happen to a thrombus?
It may dissolve spontaneously or become dislodged.
p.31
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What are the layers of a blood vessel?
The layers include the tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica externa.
p.26
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What happens to blood pressure when there is decreased stretch on blood vessel walls?
Blood pressure decreases.
p.22
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What effect does blood viscosity have on vascular resistance?
Increased viscosity leads to increased resistance and decreased blood flow.
p.32
Blood Flow and Haemodynamics
What is systemic circulation?
The circulation of blood to the rest of the body.
p.22
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What are examples that can increase blood viscosity?
Dehydration or increased red blood cells.
p.33
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the function of arteries?
To carry blood away from the heart.
p.30
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the role of arteries in the circulatory system?
To carry oxygenated blood away from the heart.
p.35
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the outermost layer of a blood vessel known as?
Tunica externa (or tunica adventitia).
p.27
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What is the function of angiotensin II?
It causes the muscular walls of small arteries (arterioles) to constrict, increasing blood pressure.
What are the main components of blood?
Red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma.
What is the function of fibrinogen in plasma?
It is involved in clotting.
p.34
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
How does the tunica media regulate the diameter of blood vessels?
Muscle arranged circularly, controlled by the sympathetic nervous system (SNS).
What are the components of the hemoglobin molecule?
4 polypeptide chains (globin) and non-protein pigment (heme).
What is the role of hormones in plasma?
They regulate metabolism.
p.36
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What regulates blood flow to tissues?
The pre-capillary sphincter at the terminal end of the arteriole.
p.28
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
Which hormone is released from the pituitary gland in response to Angiotensin II?
Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone).
p.4
Physical Characteristics of Blood
How does the density of blood compare to water?
Blood is denser than water.
p.20
Blood Flow and Haemodynamics
What is blood flow?
The volume of blood that flows through any given tissue in a given time (mL/min).
p.22
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
How does a small lumen affect blood flow?
It increases resistance and decreases blood flow.
p.26
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
Which nerves transmit signals from baroreceptors to the cardiovascular center (CVC)?
Glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves.
p.30
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What are the three main types of blood vessels?
Arteries, veins, and capillaries.
p.21
Blood Flow and Haemodynamics
What is stroke volume (SV)?
The volume of blood pumped out of the ventricle with one contraction.
p.26
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
How does an increase in heart rate affect cardiac output (CO) and blood pressure (BP)?
It increases both cardiac output and blood pressure.
p.11
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What is the first stage of haemostasis?
Vascular spasm, which is the constriction of the vessel to reduce blood loss.
What is the function of plasma in blood?
To transport nutrients, hormones, and proteins throughout the body.
p.37
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the primary function of capillaries?
Permit exchange of nutrients and waste between blood and tissues.
p.38
Venous Return Mechanisms
How does the movement of the diaphragm affect blood flow?
It compresses the veins, moving blood towards the heart.
What role do white blood cells play in blood's protective function?
They perform phagocytosis to protect against disease.
p.34
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the primary composition of the tunica media?
Muscle and connective tissue (elastin).
p.36
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What are muscular arteries characterized by?
A tunica media with smooth muscle and less elastin, varying in size.
p.37
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the function of veins?
Returns blood to the heart under low pressure.
p.18
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What factors affect arterial blood flow?
Blood pressure, vessel diameter, and blood viscosity.
p.25
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What is the role of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) in blood pressure regulation?
It is stimulatory and increases heart rate.
p.32
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What type of system do blood vessels form?
A closed system of tubes.
p.12
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What components make up a blood clot?
Fibres, blood cells, and platelets.
p.27
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What triggers the secretion of renin in the kidneys?
Increased blood pressure (BP) and blood flow to the kidneys.
p.21
Blood Flow and Haemodynamics
How is cardiac output (CO) calculated?
CO = Heart rate (HR) x stroke volume (SV).
p.38
Venous Return Mechanisms
How does the skeletal muscle pump work?
Skeletal muscle contraction assists with pumping blood back to the heart.
Do white blood cells have a nucleus?
Yes, they have a nucleus.
What are the three types of granular white blood cells?
Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
p.13
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What triggers the clotting cascade?
Damage to blood vessels and exposure of collagen.
What is the role of red blood cells?
To carry oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and return carbon dioxide to the lungs.
p.2
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What is the primary purpose of haemostasis?
To prevent and stop bleeding.
p.28
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What effect do aldosterone and vasopressin have on the kidneys?
They cause the kidneys to retain sodium.
p.18
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What is the difference between neural and hormonal regulation of blood pressure?
Neural regulation involves the nervous system, while hormonal regulation involves hormones that affect blood vessel constriction and heart rate.
p.26
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What do baroreceptors in the aorta and carotid sinus detect?
The stretch on vessel walls.
p.25
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What hormonal system is involved in blood pressure regulation?
The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.
p.17
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
How does the body regulate blood pressure?
Through mechanisms such as heart rate, blood vessel diameter, and blood volume.
p.24
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What is blood pressure?
The pressure exerted on the blood vessel wall.
p.35
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the function of the tunica media in blood vessels?
It regulates blood vessel diameter and blood pressure.
p.22
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
How does total blood vessel length affect resistance?
Resistance is proportional to the length of the vessel; longer vessels have more resistance.
p.21
Blood Flow and Haemodynamics
What are the two factors that cardiac output (CO) distribution depends on?
Pressure difference that drives blood through the vessel and resistance to blood flow.
p.27
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What enzyme converts angiotensin I into angiotensin II?
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE).
What is the primary function of blood?
To transport oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout the body.
p.38
Venous Return Mechanisms
What happens to the diaphragm during breathing that aids venous return?
The diaphragm moves down, reducing pressure in the thorax and increasing pressure in the abdominal cavity.
p.33
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What do venules do?
They collect blood from capillaries and transport it to veins.
p.11
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What is the third stage of haemostasis?
Blood clotting involving a cascade of enzymes (clotting factors).
p.34
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the function of the tunica intima?
To reduce friction and secrete locally acting chemical mediators.
What are the main types of proteins found in plasma?
Albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen.
p.18
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What is homeostasis?
The maintenance of a stable internal environment in the body.
p.31
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the primary function of blood vessels?
To transport blood throughout the body.
p.23
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What is systemic vascular resistance?
It is the total peripheral resistance to blood flow offered via the systemic vessels.
p.39
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What are the three layers of a blood vessel?
Tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica externa.
What is one primary function of blood related to gases?
Transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
What are the two main components of blood?
Blood plasma and formed elements (cells).
p.27
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What does renin do in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system?
It splits angiotensin, a large protein, into angiotensin I.
What is the function of white blood cells?
To protect the body against infections and foreign invaders.
p.27
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What is angiotensin I?
An inactive form of angiotensin that is converted into angiotensin II.
p.15
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What is the role of platelets in blood?
To assist in clot formation and prevent bleeding.
What are the main components of blood?
Plasma and formed elements (red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets).
p.15
Thrombosis and Embolism
What is thrombosis?
The formation of a blood clot within a blood vessel, which can obstruct blood flow.
p.36
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the primary function of arteries?
To carry blood away from the heart under high pressure.
p.15
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What is the significance of clot formation?
To prevent excessive bleeding when a blood vessel is injured.
What role do red blood cells play in the blood?
They carry oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and return carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.
p.30
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
How do veins differ from arteries in structure?
Veins have thinner walls and valves to prevent backflow.
p.12
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What triggers the intrinsic pathway of blood clotting?
Blood in contact with collagen.
p.17
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What is homeostasis?
The process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment.
p.20
Blood Flow and Haemodynamics
What determines blood flow to individual tissues?
The requirements of those tissues.
p.19
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What are some pre-set normal limits maintained in homeostasis?
Body temperature, fluid balance, pH, ions (potassium, sodium, calcium), and blood sugar levels.
p.23
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
Which vessels offer high resistance to blood flow?
Smaller vessels such as arterioles, venules, and capillaries.
How do white blood cells compare in size to red blood cells?
They are larger than red blood cells.
p.23
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What role do arterioles play in systemic vascular resistance?
Arterioles are key in controlling systemic vascular resistance.
p.39
Venous Return Mechanisms
What is venous return?
The process of blood returning to the heart through the veins.
p.13
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What role do platelets play in clotting?
They aggregate at the site of injury to form a temporary plug.
p.39
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the purpose of the table 21.1 in Tortora’s Principles of Anatomy and Physiology?
It outlines the distinguishing features of blood vessels.
p.13
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What is fibrin?
A protein that forms a mesh to stabilize the blood clot.
p.24
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What are the typical systolic and diastolic blood pressure values?
Systolic 120 mmHg / Diastolic 80 mmHg.
What are the types of agranular white blood cells?
Lymphocytes (B and T cells & Natural Killer cells) and monocytes.
What role do albumins play in plasma?
They maintain colloid osmotic pressure.
p.33
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the role of veins?
To carry blood back to the heart.
What is the function of white blood cells?
To defend the body against infections and foreign invaders.
p.36
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What are elastic arteries?
The largest arteries, such as the aorta, with large diameter and relatively thin walls.
p.14
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What is pulmonary embolism?
When an embolus lodges in the lungs.
p.37
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What structural feature helps prevent backflow in veins?
Valves, which are thin folds of tunica intima.
p.12
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What initiates the extrinsic pathway of blood clotting?
Tissue damage releases tissue factor.
What are the primary functions of blood?
Transportation of nutrients, oxygen, hormones, and waste; regulation of body temperature, pH, and fluid balance; protection against pathogens.
p.35
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What are the three main layers of a typical blood vessel?
Tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica externa.
p.20
Blood Flow and Haemodynamics
How is the speed (velocity) of blood flow related to cross-sectional area?
It is inversely proportional; flow is slow when there is extensive branching.
p.12
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What role do calcium ions play in blood clotting?
They are required for the clotting process.
p.20
Blood Flow and Haemodynamics
Why is blood flow slow in capillaries?
To allow for diffusion to take place.
How does blood help in regulating body fluids?
By maintaining homeostasis.
p.23
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
How do larger vessels like veins affect blood resistance?
Larger vessels such as veins offer lower resistance to blood flow.
What role does blood play in regulating pH?
It helps maintain the body's pH balance.
p.23
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What is the function of veins in the circulatory system?
Veins act as reservoirs for blood and need assistance to move blood back to the heart.
p.35
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What type of tissue primarily composes the tunica media?
Smooth muscle and elastic fibers.
p.21
Blood Flow and Haemodynamics
What affects resistance to blood flow?
Various factors including vessel diameter and blood viscosity.
How does blood provide protection against blood loss?
Through clotting mechanisms.
p.24
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
Why is the regulation of blood pressure vital?
It is essential for life.
p.24
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What controls blood pressure?
Constant automatic (neural) and hormonal control.
How do electrolytes in plasma assist cell function?
They help with cell function.
p.1
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What is the significance of blood pH?
It is crucial for maintaining homeostasis and proper cellular function.
What type of tissue is blood classified as?
Specialized connective tissue.
p.28
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What is the result of increased sodium retention in the body?
Increased water retention, leading to higher blood volume and blood pressure.
p.32
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the role of blood vessels in relation to the heart?
They carry blood away from the heart to the organs and return it back to the heart.
What are the main components of blood?
Red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma.
p.39
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
How does the structure of blood vessels relate to their function?
Different vessels have unique structures that support their specific functions in the circulatory system.
p.17
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What is the significance of maintaining homeostasis?
It is crucial for the proper functioning of cells and overall health.
p.14
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What is thrombosis?
Clotting in an unbroken vessel, usually a vein.
p.30
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the primary function of capillaries?
To facilitate the exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and waste between blood and tissues.
p.35
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the role of the tunica externa?
It provides structural support and protection to the blood vessel.
p.30
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the structure of arteries?
Thick, muscular walls to withstand high pressure.
p.36
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What type of blood do arteries usually contain?
Oxygenated blood (except for the pulmonary artery).
p.24
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
How is Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP) calculated?
MAP = Cardiac Output (CO) x Systemic Vascular Resistance.
p.30
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the significance of capillary walls?
They are one cell thick, allowing for efficient exchange.
p.14
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What can occur if an embolus lodges in an artery?
It may reduce the blood supply to an organ.
p.36
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What are the three layers of blood vessel structure?
Tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica externa.
p.38
Venous Return Mechanisms
What is the role of the respiratory muscle pump in venous return?
It involves alternating compression and decompression of the veins during breathing.
p.14
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What can cause roughened endothelial surfaces leading to thrombosis?
Atherosclerosis, trauma, or infection.
What is the function of blood in relation to osmotic pressure?
It impacts the water content of cells.
p.24
Homeostasis and Blood Pressure Regulation
What is Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP)?
The average pressure flowing through the arteries.
Do red blood cells have a nucleus?
No, they do not have a nucleus.
p.1
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What is the role of platelets in blood?
To assist in blood clotting and prevent bleeding.
p.37
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is a key feature of venules?
They have thin walls and a diameter of 10 to 50 micrometers.
p.34
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the function of the tunica externa?
To anchor the vessel to the surrounding tissue.
What is the function of eosinophils?
Respond during allergic reactions and dampen histamine; raised with parasitic infections.
p.11
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What occurs during the second stage of haemostasis?
Platelet plug formation, where platelets stick to exposed collagen and release chemicals to attract more platelets.
p.34
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What are the main components of the tunica intima?
Endothelium, thin flattened cells, a basement membrane, and internal elastic lamina.
p.14
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What happens when blood flows too slowly in relation to thrombosis?
Clotting factors accumulate locally to initiate coagulation.
p.13
Clotting Mechanism (Haemostasis)
What is the end result of the clotting process?
Formation of a stable blood clot that seals the wound.
What are the types of formed elements in blood?
Platelets, white blood cells, and red blood cells.
p.34
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the outermost layer of a blood vessel called?
Tunica externa (adventitia).
p.36
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the primary function of arterioles?
To deliver blood to the capillaries.
What types of solutes are found in plasma?
Electrolytes (Na+, K+), gases, enzymes, hormones, and waste products.
How does blood help in regulating body temperature?
By distributing heat throughout the body and adjusting blood flow to the skin.
p.34
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What components are found in the tunica externa?
Elastic and collagen fibers, nerves, and in larger vessels, blood vessels (vasa vasorum).
What is plasma?
The liquid component of blood that carries cells, nutrients, hormones, and waste products.
Name the types of white blood cells.
Neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils.
What does the iron ion in hemoglobin do?
It combines reversibly with oxygen.
What is the function of monocytes?
Phagocytosis and develop into macrophages when leaving the blood.
p.36
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is an anastomosis?
The union of branches of two or more arteries, providing an alternative route for blood.
What is the size range of lymphocytes?
Small – 6 - 9μm; Large – 10 - 14μm.
p.37
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What type of capillaries are found in the liver?
Sinusoids, which have large pores to allow proteins to pass through.
p.36
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
What is the function of elastic fibers in arteries?
To enable vessels to stretch.
What is the function of basophils?
Release histamine and develop into mast cells when leaving the blood.
