p.2
Types of Hollow Organs
What organs make up the urinary tract?
Ureters, urinary bladder, urethra.
p.25
Glandular Structures and Types
Name an example of an endocrine gland.
Adrenal gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, parathyroid gland, pineal gland, or pituitary gland.
p.24
Glandular Structures and Types
How are secretory cells arranged in exocrine glands?
In distinct secretory units.
p.14
Basic Organizational Principles of Organs
What feature does the esophagus have to accommodate swallowing?
Folds that allow expansion.
p.23
Glandular Structures and Types
What is the function of exocrine glands?
To release secretory products onto a surface directly or through ducts.
p.27
Glandular Structures and Types
How do serous cells differ in staining compared to mucous cells?
Serous cells stain darker than those with mucous products.
p.15
Epithelial Types and Functions
What structure in the stomach increases surface area?
Surface invaginates to form pits.
p.29
Solid Organs: Parenchyma and Stroma
What is stroma in solid organs?
The supporting framework of an organ.
p.23
Glandular Structures and Types
How are glands formed during development?
By the invagination of an epithelium.
p.31
Basic Organizational Principles of Organs
Which organs are organized into lobes and lobules?
Pancreas, liver, and many glands.
p.2
Types of Hollow Organs
What organs are included in the digestive tract?
Esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine.
p.2
Types of Hollow Organs
Which organs are part of the respiratory tract?
Trachea, bronchi, bronchioles.
p.8
Muscularis Externa and Peristalsis
What are the typical layers of smooth muscle in the muscularis externa of the GI tract?
Two layers: inner circular and outer longitudinal.
p.5
Muscularis Externa and Peristalsis
Where is a distinct muscularis mucosa characteristic?
In the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.
p.12
Basic Organizational Principles of Organs
What are the main components of the mucosa?
Epithelium, lamina propria, and sometimes muscularis mucosa.
p.3
Layers of Hollow Organs
What is the muscularis externa?
A layer found in hollow organs that is responsible for peristalsis and movement.
p.6
Layers of Hollow Organs
What is the function of the mucosa layer?
It lines the lumen and is involved in absorption and secretion.
p.4
Lamina Propria and Immune Response
What is the role of the lamina propria in hollow organs?
It supports the epithelium and contains blood vessels and immune cells.
p.1
Basic Organizational Principles of Organs
How are differences in organ structure related to their function?
Differences in structure are related to differences in function.
p.25
Glandular Structures and Types
What happens to the secretory product after it is released by endocrine glands?
It diffuses into nearby tissue and enters capillaries.
p.10
Layers of Hollow Organs
What is a characteristic feature of the submucosa?
It sometimes contains glands.
p.17
Metaplasia and Cellular Adaptation
What causes metaplasia?
Not due to change in mature existing cells, but rather stem cell reprogramming or migration of different cell types from adjacent sites.
p.9
Enteric Nervous System
What is the enteric nervous system often referred to as?
The second brain or the brain in the gut.
p.29
Solid Organs: Parenchyma and Stroma
What type of glands are included in solid organs?
Endocrine and exocrine glands.
p.28
Glandular Structures and Types
What is an example of an apocrine gland?
Mammary gland (milk secretion).
p.7
Layers of Hollow Organs
What is the composition of the adventitia?
Connective tissue that attaches the organ to adjacent structures.
p.24
Glandular Structures and Types
How does the secretory product of endocrine glands travel?
It is released into extracellular space, enters capillaries, and travels through the bloodstream.
p.2
Types of Hollow Organs
What are the components of the female reproductive tract?
Oviduct, uterus, cervix, vagina.
p.5
Basic Organizational Principles of Organs
What are the main components of the mucosa?
Epithelium, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosa.
p.9
Enteric Nervous System
How many neurons are estimated to be in the enteric nervous system?
Approximately 100 million neurons.
p.21
Epithelial Types and Functions
What type of epithelia typically serve as impermeable barriers?
Stratified and transitional epithelia.
p.20
Lamina Propria and Immune Response
What is edema in the context of histological changes?
Swelling caused by leaky blood vessels, resulting in more space between cells.
p.22
Basic Organizational Principles of Organs
Why does gas exchange occur efficiently at the air-blood barrier?
Because of the small diffusion distance.
p.18
Lamina Propria and Immune Response
What is the role of capillaries in the lamina propria?
Nutrients diffuse from these capillaries to supply the epithelium.
p.20
Lamina Propria and Immune Response
What effect does celiac disease have on the villi?
It causes the villi to shorten.
p.19
Lamina Propria and Immune Response
How do leukocytes enter the lamina propria?
By exiting post-capillary venules through a process called diapedesis.
p.18
Lamina Propria and Immune Response
What is the function of fibroblasts in the lamina propria?
They produce the extracellular matrix (ECM).
p.1
Basic Organizational Principles of Organs
What are the three main types of organs mentioned?
Hollow organs, glands, and solid organs.
p.29
Solid Organs: Parenchyma and Stroma
What is parenchyma in solid organs?
The functional part of an organ.
p.25
Glandular Structures and Types
Why are endocrine glands considered highly vascularized?
Because they have a rich supply of blood vessels.
p.10
Layers of Hollow Organs
Which organs are mentioned as having a submucosa?
Esophagus, stomach, duodenum, and trachea.
p.4
Basic Organizational Principles of Organs
What are the main layers of hollow organs?
Mucosa, muscularis externa, adventitia or serosa.
p.6
Basic Organizational Principles of Organs
What are the three main layers of the digestive tract?
Mucosa, sub-mucosa, and muscularis externa.
p.22
Basic Organizational Principles of Organs
What forms the air-blood barrier?
Endothelial cells, pneumocytes, and their fused basal laminas.
p.28
Glandular Structures and Types
How do apocrine glands release their secretions?
The apical part of the cell pinches off, releasing a lipid droplet.
p.16
Metaplasia and Cellular Adaptation
In which organs can metaplasia occur due to cigarette smoke exposure?
In the trachea and bronchi.
p.20
Lamina Propria and Immune Response
What is known about the cause of Crohn's disease?
The cause is unknown, but it may involve autoimmunity and chronic inflammation.
p.1
Basic Organizational Principles of Organs
What is an important component of how tissues combine to form organs?
Their spatial arrangements with respect to one another.
p.10
Layers of Hollow Organs
What type of tissue primarily composes the submucosa?
Irregular connective tissue, mostly loose connective tissue.
p.17
Metaplasia and Cellular Adaptation
What is the primary purpose of metaplasia?
To provide a protective mechanism.
p.17
Metaplasia and Cellular Adaptation
What are potential negative consequences of metaplasia?
Loss of normal epithelial functions and increased risk of becoming problematic.
p.9
Enteric Nervous System
Where are enteric neurons typically grouped in the GI tract?
In small clusters, mostly in the submucosa and between smooth muscle layers of the muscularis externa.
p.2
Types of Hollow Organs
Which organs are included in the male reproductive tract?
Ductus deferens, urethra.
p.26
Glandular Structures and Types
What is the primary function of exocrine glands?
To transport secretory products through ducts.
p.16
Metaplasia and Cellular Adaptation
What is epithelial metaplasia?
An adaptive response where original epithelial cells are replaced by a type more resistant to chronic inflammation and environmental stress.
p.9
Enteric Nervous System
How does the number of neurons in the enteric nervous system compare to the spinal cord and brain?
It has more neurons than the spinal cord but fewer than the brain.
p.30
Solid Organs: Parenchyma and Stroma
What is the composition of the stroma surrounding organs?
Dense irregular connective tissue.
p.21
Epithelial Types and Functions
What substances can diffuse across the plasma membrane of simple epithelia?
Oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
p.26
Glandular Structures and Types
What components does the pancreas have?
Exocrine and endocrine components.
p.21
Epithelial Types and Functions
What is transcytosis?
Transport of substances across a cell via membrane-bounded vesicles.
p.13
Epithelial Types and Functions
Can the same type of epithelium have different cell types?
Yes, even for the same type, cell types and their relative abundance may differ.
p.18
Lamina Propria and Immune Response
What do reticular fibers provide in the lamina propria?
Physical support for cells in some organs.
p.11
Glandular Structures and Types
What is the function of submucosal glands in the esophagus?
To produce mucus for lubrication and protection.
p.1
Basic Organizational Principles of Organs
Why is it important to be familiar with the general architectural plans for different types of organs?
It makes it easier to learn about specific organs.
p.15
Epithelial Types and Functions
How do glands in the stomach extend?
Glands extend from the bottom of the pits.
p.9
Enteric Nervous System
What do post-synaptic sympathetic fibers and parasympathetic ganglion neurons modulate?
The contraction of smooth muscle.
p.29
Solid Organs: Parenchyma and Stroma
What are the types of organization in solid organs?
Lobes & lobules, cortex & medulla, and other unique structures.
p.15
Epithelial Types and Functions
What happens to the surface of the colon?
Surface invaginates to form glands.
p.28
Glandular Structures and Types
Which glands are primarily classified as merocrine?
Most exocrine glands, such as salivary and pancreas.
p.16
Metaplasia and Cellular Adaptation
What happens to epithelial stem cells during metaplasia?
They change their patterns of gene expression.
p.26
Glandular Structures and Types
What type of glands are the major salivary glands and pancreas classified as?
Glands that are themselves organs.
p.28
Glandular Structures and Types
What happens in holocrine secretion?
The secretory product is released as the cell dies and disintegrates.
p.28
Glandular Structures and Types
Which glands are an example of holocrine secretion?
Sebaceous glands of hair follicles.
p.27
Glandular Structures and Types
What are the three types of glandular products mentioned?
Serous, mucous, and mixed.
p.24
Glandular Structures and Types
Where is the secretory product released in exocrine glands?
Into the lumen of the secretory unit and then into ducts.
p.15
Epithelial Types and Functions
What feature of the small intestine increases surface area?
Surface evaginates to form villi.
p.15
Epithelial Types and Functions
Where do glands in the small intestine extend from?
Glands extend from the base of the villi.
p.3
Layers of Hollow Organs
What does the term 'lamina propria' refer to?
The underlying connective tissue of the mucosa.
p.13
Epithelial Types and Functions
What type of epithelium is found in the trachea?
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar.
p.12
Basic Organizational Principles of Organs
What factors contribute to the differences in mucosal structure?
Differences in architecture and cellular composition are related to differences in function.
p.4
Muscularis Externa and Peristalsis
What is the function of the muscularis externa?
It is responsible for the peristaltic movement of the organ.
p.18
Lamina Propria and Immune Response
What do lymphatic vessels do in the lamina propria?
They take up excess fluid ('lymph') from extracellular spaces.
p.18
Lamina Propria and Immune Response
What type of cells are resident in the lamina propria?
Fibroblasts and mast cells.
p.21
Epithelial Types and Functions
Which areas of the body have impermeable barriers?
Capillaries in the brain, testes, and thymus.
p.18
Lamina Propria and Immune Response
What is the role of collagen fibers in the lamina propria?
Provide tensile strength.
p.11
Glandular Structures and Types
What are submucosal glands?
Glands located in the submucosa that secrete various substances.
p.11
Glandular Structures and Types
What role do submucosal glands play in the trachea?
They help in secreting mucus to trap particles and keep the airway moist.
p.7
Layers of Hollow Organs
What type of tissue comprises the serosa?
Loose connective tissue covered by mesothelium (simple squamous epithelium).
p.17
Metaplasia and Cellular Adaptation
What is metaplasia?
A reversible change of one cell type to another more resistant/sturdy type.
p.5
Muscularis Externa and Peristalsis
What is the muscularis mucosa?
A layer of muscle present between the lamina propria and submucosa, considered part of the mucosa.
p.22
Basic Organizational Principles of Organs
What is a consequence of fluid accumulation between capillaries and alveoli?
It decreases the amount of gas exchange.
p.28
Glandular Structures and Types
What is the mechanism of secretion for merocrine glands?
Exocytosis from membrane-bounded vesicles.
p.8
Muscularis Externa and Peristalsis
What is peristalsis?
The coordinated contraction of muscle layers in the muscularis externa.
p.15
Epithelial Types and Functions
What is the purpose of outward/inward projections in these organs?
To increase surface area and cell abundance.
p.5
Muscularis Externa and Peristalsis
What is the role of the muscularis externa?
It is involved in peristalsis and movement of contents through the GI tract.
p.20
Lamina Propria and Immune Response
What immune reaction occurs in celiac disease?
An immune reaction to gluten causing chronic inflammation and recruitment of immune cells.
p.21
Epithelial Types and Functions
What is the paracellular pathway?
Transport between cells through leaky tight junctions.
p.30
Solid Organs: Parenchyma and Stroma
What is notable about the salivary gland's structure?
It has a thick CT capsule and septa.
p.18
Lamina Propria and Immune Response
What substances do mast cells release?
Histamine and other substances that act on nearby blood vessels.
p.3
Layers of Hollow Organs
What is the mucosa?
The lining of body tubes that connect with the outside of the body, such as the digestive, respiratory, and urogenital tracts.
p.19
Lamina Propria and Immune Response
What is the role of macrophages in the lamina propria?
Phagocytose debris, dead cells, and extracellular matrix; present antigens to T lymphocytes; secrete cytokines and growth factors.
p.19
Lamina Propria and Immune Response
What do lymphocytes do in the lamina propria?
Mediate immune responses.
p.21
Epithelial Types and Functions
What are the mechanisms of transepithelial transport in simple epithelia?
Diffusion, paracellular pathway, transcellular pathway, and transcytosis.
p.16
Metaplasia and Cellular Adaptation
What is the most common type of metaplasia?
Columnar-to-squamous (i.e., stratified squamous).
p.6
Muscularis Externa and Peristalsis
What is the muscularis externa responsible for?
It is responsible for peristalsis and movement of food through the digestive tract.
p.20
Lamina Propria and Immune Response
What type of immune cells are present in increased numbers in the lamina propria during chronic inflammation?
Plasma cells and lymphocytes.
p.19
Lamina Propria and Immune Response
What are wandering cells in the lamina propria?
Cells that migrate into the tissue from the blood in response to specific stimuli.
p.13
Epithelial Types and Functions
What type of epithelium is found in the esophagus?
Stratified squamous non-keratinized.
p.12
Basic Organizational Principles of Organs
How does the mucosa vary between different organs?
It differs in architecture, cellular composition, and the presence of folds, projections, or invaginations.
p.8
Muscularis Externa and Peristalsis
How do variations in muscle layers affect organ function?
Differences in the number, orientation, and thickness of muscle layers are associated with differences in organ function.
p.6
Layers of Hollow Organs
What is the role of the sub-mucosa?
It provides support and contains blood vessels, nerves, and glands.
p.3
Layers of Hollow Organs
Which layers are found in all hollow organs?
Mucosa, lamina propria, muscularis externa, adventitia or serosa.
p.30
Solid Organs: Parenchyma and Stroma
In a lymph node, what supports the lymphocytes?
A meshwork of reticular fibers.
p.18
Lamina Propria and Immune Response
What is the function of elastic fibers in the lamina propria?
Allow for stretching in some organs.
p.12
Basic Organizational Principles of Organs
What types of variations can be found in the cellular composition of the mucosa?
Variations in types of cells and their relative abundance.
p.19
Lamina Propria and Immune Response
What types of leukocytes participate in defense against bacteria and parasites?
Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
p.13
Epithelial Types and Functions
What allows the esophagus and urinary bladder to expand?
Folding of the epithelium.
p.16
Metaplasia and Cellular Adaptation
What can happen if metaplasia is not reversed?
The cells can become cancerous.
p.21
Epithelial Types and Functions
What role do membrane proteins play in transepithelial transport?
They function as transporters, channels, and pumps.
p.6
Basic Organizational Principles of Organs
Which organs are being identified in the context of tissue layers?
Small intestine and trachea.
p.16
Metaplasia and Cellular Adaptation
What type of epithelium lines the circled region in cases of metaplasia?
Stratified squamous epithelium.
p.16
Metaplasia and Cellular Adaptation
What type of epithelium lines a normal cervix?
Simple columnar epithelium.
