p.1
Behaviorism in Language Learning
What is the result of language learning according to behaviorism?
Imitation, reinforcement, feedback on success, and habit formation.
p.1
Behaviorism in Language Learning
What role does imitation play in behaviorism?
It is a key component in the process of language learning.
p.1
Behaviorism in Language Learning
How does reinforcement contribute to language learning in behaviorism?
It strengthens the learned behaviors.
p.11
Interactionism in Second Language Acquisition
What concept does Selinker refer to in relation to L2?
A growing developmental system.
p.16
Principles and Parameters Framework
What does the principle of structure dependence state?
Language is not just a string of unstructured segments.
p.23
Markedness Differential Hypothesis
How does the theory of markedness influence second language development according to Doughty (1991)?
It influences second language development with respect to relativization in two ways: (a) preinstructional interlanguage relativization ability begins in an untutored, unmarked fashion, and (b) instruction considering markedness relations provides a shortcut to acquisition.
p.16
Principles and Parameters Framework
What is the Empty Category Principle (ECP)?
A principle suggesting that certain grammatical structures allow for the omission of elements under specific conditions.
p.1
Behaviorism in Language Learning
What is the significance of feedback in behaviorist language learning?
It provides information on success, guiding further learning.
p.11
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What does the Interlanguage Structural Conformity Hypothesis state?
All universals that are true for primary languages are also true for interlanguages.
p.16
Principles and Parameters Framework
How are yes/no questions formed according to the principle of structure dependence?
By moving the main verb to the front of the sentence, not by moving the first verb.
p.13
Principles and Parameters Framework
What is the universal principle regarding driving?
Drivers must consistently keep to one side of the road.
p.26
Principles and Parameters Framework
What is the Subset Principle in language learning?
It states that if learners construct a conservative grammar, Y, which generates a subset of sentences from another grammar, X, it can be expanded based on positive evidence.
p.12
Principles and Parameters Framework
What are Parameters in the context of the Principles and Parameters Framework?
Binary values (+ / -) that account for cross-linguistic differences.
p.11
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What are the two main components of language acquisition according to UG?
UG and input (positive evidence).
p.11
Innatism and Language Acquisition
How do innate linguistic properties contribute to language acquisition?
They fill in where input fails.
p.4
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What does Chomsky suggest about the structure of language?
Little hope exists that much of the structure can be learned by an uninformed organism.
p.5
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
What is the second step in the poverty-of-the-stimulus argument?
Showing that the aspect of syntax was not learnable from typical language evidence available to children.
p.9
Interactionism in Second Language Acquisition
How does Interactionism view the role of input?
It considers both innate capacities and the importance of social interaction.
p.26
Principles and Parameters Framework
What is required if learners start with a superset grammar X?
Negative evidence to narrow its scope to construct Y.
p.3
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
What is meant by 'degeneracy' in language input?
It means that the input is not always grammatical.
p.12
Principles and Parameters Framework
What are the two main components of the Principles and Parameters Framework?
Principles and Parameters.
p.23
Markedness Differential Hypothesis
What is the effect of instruction that considers markedness relations on second language acquisition?
It facilitates subjects' improvement across all relativization contexts while focusing on only one marked context of relativization.
p.7
Interactionism in Second Language Acquisition
What is 'negotiation for meaning' in the context of language acquisition?
It is the process where learners and speakers clarify and negotiate the meaning of language during interaction.
p.13
Principles and Parameters Framework
What does the parameter of driving specify?
Which side of the road to drive on, either left or right.
p.14
Fundamental Difference Hypothesis
What is a key aspect of learners' prior knowledge in the context of the FDH?
Learners already have knowledge of one language and a powerful system of general abstract problem skills.
p.13
Principles and Parameters Framework
What happens when a country changes its driving side?
It is a massively complex operation.
p.19
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
What is the significance of the sentence 'John likes not Mary'?
It demonstrates incorrect verb placement in French negation.
p.5
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
What does Chomsky's quote highlight about language acquisition?
It emphasizes the disparity between the complexity of knowledge and the meager evidence available.
p.20
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What is Universal Grammar?
A theory that suggests there are inherent grammatical structures shared by all languages.
p.4
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
What is the significance of the degenerate quality of available data in language acquisition?
It highlights the challenges in learning language due to limited and poor-quality input.
p.24
Markedness Differential Hypothesis
What is the implication of a structure being marked?
It indicates that the structure is more complex or less common compared to an unmarked structure.
p.10
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What does the term 'opening the black box' refer to in linguistics?
Exploring the underlying principles that govern language structure.
p.5
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
What conclusion is drawn from the poverty-of-the-stimulus argument?
That the aspect of syntax is built-in to the child's mind.
p.25
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
According to Eckman, what does 'p' represent in the context of Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy (NPAH)?
The subject (SU) position.
p.3
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
What does 'underdetermination' refer to in the context of language learning?
It refers to the idea that the input underdetermines the system a learner develops.
p.4
Innatism and Language Acquisition
Why is negative evidence not a source of learning L1?
Not all of Pinker's criteria are applicable to First Language Acquisition (FLA).
p.5
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
What is the logical problem of language acquisition?
It questions how we acquire rich knowledge and intricate systems of belief despite limited evidence.
p.24
Markedness Differential Hypothesis
What does the Markedness Differential Hypothesis state?
If structure p implies structure q, but not vice versa, then p is marked and q is unmarked.
p.19
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
What does the example 'Aime - t - elle Jean?' illustrate?
The correct structure for asking if she likes John in French.
p.19
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
What does the term 'verb-raising parameter' refer to?
The syntactic structure that affects verb placement in sentences.
p.5
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
What is the third step in the poverty-of-the-stimulus argument?
Arguing that the aspect of syntax is not acquired from external sources like parents' explanations.
p.6
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
What is Plato's Problem in the context of language acquisition?
It addresses the logical problem of how learners can acquire complex language structures with limited input.
p.17
Principles and Parameters Framework
How do UG parameters facilitate language learning?
They reduce options by having limited values.
p.12
Principles and Parameters Framework
How does the Principles and Parameters Framework explain adult L2 learners?
It explains their mature grammatical competence.
p.22
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
What are the six types of relative clauses according to NPAH?
SU, DO, IO, PrepO, Gen, CompO.
p.27
Principles and Parameters Framework
What does 'superset' mean in the context of the Subset Principle?
A less restrictive grammar that encompasses a broader range of structures, as seen in the learner's first language.
p.25
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
What is an example of a subject (SU) in the NPAH?
The man that kicked the dog.
p.17
Principles and Parameters Framework
What are some clustering properties related to the pro-drop parameter?
Omission of subject pronouns, inversion of subjects and verbs, and that-trace effects.
p.25
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
What is an example of a genitive (Gen) in the NPAH?
The dog whose owner has died.
p.8
Connectionism and Implicit Learning
What aspect of cognitive processing is emphasized in the context of implicit learning?
The vast majority of our cognitive processing is unconscious.
p.4
Innatism and Language Acquisition
What are Pinker's four criteria for negative evidence?
1. Exists 2. Exists in usable form 3. Is used 4. Is necessary.
p.4
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What does the logical problem of language acquisition consider?
The character of the grammar acquired, the limited data available, the uniformity of resulting grammars, and their independence from intelligence, motivation, and emotional state.
p.14
Fundamental Difference Hypothesis
What does the Fundamental Difference Hypothesis (FDH) suggest about foreign language learning?
It differs in degrees of success, character and uniformity of resulting systems, and susceptibility to factors like motivation.
p.1
Behaviorism in Language Learning
What does habit formation refer to in the context of behaviorism?
The process of developing automatic responses in language use.
p.23
Markedness Differential Hypothesis
What is the nature of the preinstructional interlanguage relativization ability?
It begins in an untutored, unmarked fashion.
p.17
Principles and Parameters Framework
What are UG parameters?
Linguistic features that vary across languages.
p.9
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What is the cumulative effect of research from different perspectives on language acquisition?
It provides a more comprehensive understanding of the process.
p.18
Principles and Parameters Framework
What does 'that-trace' refer to in Italian?
It refers to leaving a trace in sentences.
p.6
Interactionism in Second Language Acquisition
What is Interactionism in language acquisition?
It emphasizes the interaction between the linguistic environment and the learner's innate capacities.
p.2
Behaviorism in Language Learning
What is the difference between input and intake in language learning?
Input is the language environment, while intake is what is cognitively registered.
p.18
Principles and Parameters Framework
How does the use of 'who(m)' differ in Italian?
'Who(m)' can be used as a direct object, and 'that' is optional.
p.17
Principles and Parameters Framework
What is a characteristic of the pro-drop parameter in English?
Subject pronouns are not omitted.
p.6
Interactionism in Second Language Acquisition
What are two strategies involved in modified input?
Simplification and elaboration.
p.21
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
What type of relative clause is 'The house that she lives in…'?
PrepO (Prepositional Object).
p.3
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
What is a key characteristic of language input regarding negative evidence?
Children do not receive negative evidence.
p.19
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
What does the example 'Who do you think that John met __?' illustrate?
The acceptable use of 'that' in a wh-question.
p.10
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What is Universal Grammar (UG)?
A set of abstract principles that characterize core grammars of all natural languages.
p.2
Behaviorism in Language Learning
What assumption does Behaviorism make about input and intake?
Behaviorism assumes that input leads to intake through reinforcement and conditioning.
p.16
Principles and Parameters Framework
What did the study on Japanese L2 learners reveal about the ECP?
Both L2 learners and native speakers accepted accusative case drop sentences more than nominative case drop, indicating ECP functions in early grammar.
p.5
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
What is the first step in the poverty-of-the-stimulus argument?
Demonstrating that a native speaker knows a specific aspect of syntax.
p.9
Behaviorism in Language Learning
What is the perspective of Behaviorism on language acquisition?
It emphasizes the role of environmental input and reinforcement.
p.14
Access to UG Hypothesis
What does the Access to UG Hypothesis relate to in second language acquisition?
It relates to the availability of Universal Grammar to learners.
p.12
Principles and Parameters Framework
What is considered the guiding force in the Principles and Parameters Framework?
Core grammar, which is innate.
p.20
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What is the goal of a typological approach in linguistics?
To discover similarities and differences among world languages.
p.6
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
What does Orwell's Problem refer to in language learning?
It highlights the challenges of understanding language in a social context, particularly regarding meaning and interpretation.
p.20
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What is the nature of typological universals?
Data-driven and descriptive.
p.25
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
What is the Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy (NPAH)?
A framework that ranks the accessibility of noun phrases in different syntactic positions.
p.18
Principles and Parameters Framework
When is 'that' not optional in Italian?
When it cannot be followed by a trace.
p.8
Connectionism and Implicit Learning
What role does frequency and regularity play in Connectionism?
They are key components in language learning.
p.22
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
What is an example of a DO relative clause?
The tree that the man cut down…
p.8
Connectionism and Implicit Learning
What type of knowledge is most prevalent in language learning?
Most knowledge is tacit knowledge; most learning is implicit.
p.24
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What is the primary purpose of Universal Grammar (UG)?
To provide a solution to the logical problem of language acquisition.
p.14
Fundamental Difference Hypothesis
What are the two variables that influence the initial state of second language acquisition?
Transfer (availability of L1 grammar) and Access to UG (availability of Universal Grammar).
p.2
Innatism and Language Acquisition
What evidence supports the idea that animals cannot learn complex symbol systems?
Animals cannot manipulate a symbol system as complicated as the natural language of a three- or four-year-old human child.
p.26
Principles and Parameters Framework
What happens if learners only hear Y-based sentences?
They will stick with that setting.
p.10
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What distinguishes typological universals?
They are data-driven and descriptive.
p.24
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
What does the Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy (NPAH) relate to?
It relates to the accessibility of noun phrases in language structures.
p.27
Principles and Parameters Framework
What is the Subset Principle in Second Language Acquisition (SLA)?
It refers to the idea that learners will initially adopt a more restrictive grammar (subset) when learning a target language.
p.27
Principles and Parameters Framework
In the context of the Subset Principle, what does 'subset' refer to?
A more restrictive grammar that is applied in the target language.
p.25
Principles and Parameters Framework
What is the significance of the Subset Principles in language learning?
Learners can construct a conservative grammar that generates a subset of sentences from another grammar, which can be expanded with positive evidence.
p.27
Principles and Parameters Framework
What is an example of an unmarked structure in the first language?
SU in Italian word order.
p.22
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
What is an example of an Ocomp relative clause?
The man that I am richer than…
p.19
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
What is the main focus of the examples provided regarding 'that' in questions?
The acceptability of using 'that' in wh-questions.
p.9
Innatism and Language Acquisition
What are the different views on the role of input in language acquisition?
Behaviorism, Innatism, Interactionism, and Connectionism.
p.7
Interactionism in Second Language Acquisition
What does Long's Interaction Hypothesis emphasize in language acquisition?
Environmental contributions to acquisition are mediated by selective attention and the learner’s developing L2 processing capacity.
p.12
Principles and Parameters Framework
What do Principles represent in the Principles and Parameters Framework?
Invariant rules shared by all natural languages.
p.9
Interactionism in Second Language Acquisition
What is the significance of modified input in language acquisition?
It suggests that input can be adjusted to aid learning.
p.10
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What is the purpose of Universal Grammar according to Chomsky?
To characterize the child's prelinguistic state.
p.2
Innatism and Language Acquisition
What is a characteristic of the generative system of language?
It allows for an infinite number of sentences.
p.18
Principles and Parameters Framework
What is a characteristic of Italian regarding subject pronouns?
Subject pronouns can be omitted.
p.19
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
What does the example 'Jean regarde souvent la television' illustrate?
Correct adverb placement in French.
p.13
Principles and Parameters Framework
What does the term 'periphery grammar' refer to?
Language-specific characteristics.
p.22
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
What does the hierarchy in NPAH reflect?
The ease of relativization.
p.8
Connectionism and Implicit Learning
According to Connectionism, where is everything related to language learning found?
Everything is in the input.
p.27
Principles and Parameters Framework
What is an example of a marked structure in the target language?
Ocomp in English word order.
p.15
Innatism and Language Acquisition
What is the difference between 1st language acquisition (LA) and 2nd language acquisition (LA) in terms of intake and input?
In 1st LA, intake is greater than input; in 2nd LA, intake is less than input.
p.15
Fundamental Difference Hypothesis
What role do affective factors play in language acquisition according to the Fundamental Difference Hypothesis?
They are considered important for successful language learning.
p.24
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What does UG hypothesize about grammatical knowledge?
It fills in the epistemological gap due to underdetermined linguistic evidence.
p.9
Innatism and Language Acquisition
What does the term 'Innate Capacity' refer to in language learning?
The inherent ability of individuals to acquire language.
p.10
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What are the two types of language universals mentioned?
Universal Grammar and Typological universals.
p.23
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
What does the term 'NPAH' refer to in the context of markedness?
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy.
p.16
Principles and Parameters Framework
What is an example of a sentence that violates the Empty Category Principle?
John sono hon o yonda (John that book ACC read - PAST).
p.12
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What does the Universal Grammar (UG) approach provide for human languages?
A range of options and universal constraints.
p.21
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
What does NPAH stand for?
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy.
p.10
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What is the focus of Universal Grammar?
Core grammar and shared grammar among all human languages.
p.13
Principles and Parameters Framework
What perspective does the psycholinguistic approach provide on language learning?
It focuses on how language is developed.
p.25
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
What does 'q' represent in the context of Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy (NPAH)?
The object (DO, IO, Oprep, Gen, Ocomp) positions.
p.17
Principles and Parameters Framework
What is the clustering effect in UG parameters?
The phenomenon where setting one parameter influences related linguistic properties.
p.8
Connectionism and Implicit Learning
What does Connectionism suggest about the need for a 'module of the mind'?
There is no need to posit a 'module of the mind'.
p.6
Interactionism in Second Language Acquisition
What is meant by 'modified input' in language learning?
It refers to adjustments made to language input to make it comprehensible for learners.
p.6
Interactionism in Second Language Acquisition
What does 'intake < input' imply?
It suggests that the language a learner processes (intake) can be less than the language they are exposed to (input).
p.8
Connectionism and Implicit Learning
What is the relationship between AI development and Emergentism?
The system emerges because of AI development.
p.19
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
What is the issue highlighted by the rarity of 'that' in wh-questions?
It raises questions about how such contrasts can be acquired purely from input.
p.20
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What are typological universals?
Linguistic features that can be observed across different languages.
p.7
Interactionism in Second Language Acquisition
What is the outcome of the interaction between NNS and NS in the example?
The NNS successfully clarifies the word 'vase' through negotiation.
p.2
Innatism and Language Acquisition
What do children master in a variety of conditions regarding their native language?
The basic structure of their native language or dialect.
p.20
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What does a typological approach help determine?
Linguistic typologies or what 'types' of languages are possible.
p.27
Principles and Parameters Framework
How does the Subset Principle apply to English and Italian word order?
English follows a subset (SVO), while Italian follows a superset (SVO, VSO, OVS), allowing for more flexibility.
p.15
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What does 'Full Transfer/ Full Access' refer to?
A concept in L1-based access to UG.
p.22
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
What is an example of a Gen relative clause?
The dog whose owner has died…
p.15
Fundamental Difference Hypothesis
What is the significance of negative evidence in language learning?
It is necessary for learners to understand what is not correct in language use.
p.20
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What are the two types of Universal Grammar?
Descriptive and Explanatory.
p.26
Principles and Parameters Framework
What evidence is needed for learners to move from a conservative grammar Y to a more expansive grammar X?
Positive evidence from X-based sentences.
p.18
Principles and Parameters Framework
What is an example of subject-verb inversion in Italian?
É arrivata Laura (Laura has arrived).
p.10
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What is the focus of typological universals?
The differences among human languages.
p.6
Interactionism in Second Language Acquisition
What is Vygotsky's contribution to language acquisition theory?
He introduced the concept of the zone of proximal development, which relates to learning with assistance.
p.21
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
What type of relative clause is 'The man that I am richer than…'?
CompO (Comparative Object).
p.22
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
What does the Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy (NPAH) indicate about relative clauses?
If a language has a relative clause of the type IO, it will also have any relative clause type higher on the hierarchy.
p.17
Principles and Parameters Framework
What happens once a UG parameter is set?
All related properties are affected.
p.18
Principles and Parameters Framework
Is 'that' always necessary in Italian sentences?
'That' is often optional.
p.17
Principles and Parameters Framework
What is a characteristic of the pro-drop parameter in Italian?
Subject pronouns can be omitted, as in 'Ho mangiato'.
p.6
Interactionism in Second Language Acquisition
What does the relationship 'intake > input' signify?
It indicates that the amount of language a learner processes (intake) can exceed the language they are exposed to (input).
p.15
Principles and Parameters Framework
What are 'Principles' and 'Parameters' in the context of UG?
'Principles' refer to the universal aspects of UG, while 'Parameters' refer to language-specific settings.
p.12
Principles and Parameters Framework
What problem does the Principles and Parameters Framework help to address?
Plato’s problem regarding first language acquisition.
p.2
Poverty of Stimulus Argument
What does the term 'poverty of stimulus' refer to?
It refers to the idea that the linguistic input available to children is insufficient to explain their ability to learn language.
p.15
Fundamental Difference Hypothesis
What does the Fundamental Difference Hypothesis suggest about language acquisition?
It highlights factors such as lack of success, general failure, and variation in success and goals.
p.17
Principles and Parameters Framework
What is an example of a pro-drop parameter?
The omission of subject pronouns, as seen in Italian.
p.25
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
What is an example of a direct object (DO) in the NPAH?
The tree that the man cut down.
p.8
Connectionism and Implicit Learning
What is the nature of language learning according to Ellis (2002)?
The bulk of language acquisition is implicit learning from usage.
p.8
Connectionism and Implicit Learning
What does implicit learning provide in the context of language acquisition?
A distributional analysis of the problem space.
p.27
Principles and Parameters Framework
What is the relationship between positive and negative transfer in language learning?
Positive transfer occurs when a learner's first language (L1) helps in learning the target language (TL), while negative transfer occurs when L1 interferes with TL learning.
p.21
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
What are the six types of relative clauses according to the NPAH?
SU, DO, IO, PrepO, Gen, CompO.
p.15
Universal Grammar and Language Universals
What does the Access to UG Hypothesis state about Universal Grammar (UG)?
UG is constant and distinct from the learner’s L1 grammar, constraining the L2 learner’s interlanguage grammar.
p.22
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
What is an example of an IO relative clause?
The man that she cooked the cake for…
p.25
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
What is an example of an indirect object (IO) in the NPAH?
The man that she cooked the cake for.
p.25
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
What is an example of a comparative object (Ocomp) in the NPAH?
The man that I am richer than.
