p.20
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What are visual field defects?
Loss of vision in a part of the visual field.
p.66
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
What are the options available for cataract surgery?
Multifocal and toric implants.
p.123
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What is the significance of examining the optic nerve sheath?
It helps in diagnosing conditions related to intracranial pressure.
p.39
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What is convergence in the context of the accommodation reflex?
Inward turning of the eyes.
p.120
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What happens to the optic nerve as cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pressure increases?
The pressure is transmitted to the optic nerve, impeding axoplasmic transport.
p.52
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is a refractive error?
A problem with focusing light accurately onto the retina due to the shape of the eye.
p.35
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What does the lower optic radiation carry?
Fibres from the inferior retinal quadrants, corresponding to the superior visual field quadrants.
p.98
Eye Anatomy and Visual Pathway
What is the macula?
A small area in the retina responsible for central vision.
p.4
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What initiates the visual pathway?
Photoreceptors in the retina.
p.7
Color Vision Mechanisms
What determines our perception of color?
The overall balance of activity in short, medium, and long wavelength cones.
p.4
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is the primary function of the visual pathway?
To transmit visual information from the retina to the brain.
p.74
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is a key characteristic of proliferative diabetic retinopathy (DR)?
Increased retinal ischemia.
p.107
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What reassurance should be given to patients with Dry Type ARMD?
Patients won’t go completely blind; personal support is important.
p.44
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What does bilateral constriction when swinging back to the right eye indicate?
That the right afferent pathway is normal.
p.21
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What are some causes of monocular visual field defects?
Tumor, optic atrophy, trauma, acute optic neuritis.
p.91
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is the most common cause of Amaurosis Fugax?
Vascular or heart disease.
p.65
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
What visual symptoms are associated with posterior subcapsular cataracts?
Blurred vision, difficulty with bright lights, and problems with reading.
p.121
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What causes papilledema?
Increased intracranial pressure from various conditions such as tumors, hemorrhages, or infections.
p.33
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is another example of homonymous quadrantanopia?
Left superior quadrantanopia.
p.96
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What are some surgical repair methods for retinal detachment?
Laser, cryopexy, buckle, or pneumatic retinopexy.
p.64
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
What are common symptoms of nuclear cataracts?
Blurred vision, difficulty seeing in low light, and changes in color perception.
p.64
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
What causes nuclear cataracts?
Aging, exposure to UV light, and certain medical conditions like diabetes.
p.7
Color Vision Mechanisms
What is the significance of peak sensitivity in color vision?
Each type of receptor has a different peak sensitivity.
p.108
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is the Amsler Grid used for?
To self-monitor vision, particularly for changes in the central visual field.
p.64
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
What is the impact of nuclear cataracts on vision?
They can lead to significant vision loss and difficulty with daily activities.
p.17
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
How is the visual field assessed?
Through tests like perimetry or visual field testing.
p.32
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What diagnosis was made from the catheter cerebral angiogram?
LEFT occipital arteriovenous malformation.
p.74
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What serious condition can result from traction in proliferative diabetic retinopathy?
Traction retinal detachment.
p.66
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
What should be assessed to determine if cataract surgery is an option?
Whether vision loss or symptoms of glare interfere with job or lifestyle.
p.27
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is bitemporal hemianopia?
A visual field defect affecting both temporal fields in each eye.
p.10
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What forms the optic nerve?
The convergence of axons of the retinal ganglion cells.
p.88
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is Amaurosis Fugax?
A transient loss of vision in one eye (monocular).
p.97
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What type of light phenomenon may indicate retinal detachment?
Sudden flashes of light, typically in the periphery.
p.56
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What are common symptoms of astigmatism?
Blurred or distorted vision, difficulty seeing at night, and eye strain.
p.7
Color Vision Mechanisms
What is normal color vision based on?
The activity of 3 types of receptors.
p.100
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is the typical presentation of retinoblastoma?
Typically occurs in one eye.
p.100
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is a common sign of retinoblastoma in the pupil?
The pupil appears white (leukocoria).
p.3
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is the visual pathway?
The route by which retinal stimuli are transferred to the occipital cortex of the brain.
p.53
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is hyperopia?
A refractive error where close objects appear blurry (farsightedness).
p.67
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is diabetic retinopathy (DR)?
A complication of diabetes that affects the eyes and can lead to blindness.
p.103
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
How does advanced age relate to Macular Degeneration?
It is a significant risk factor.
p.25
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is the relationship between brain injury and vision loss in homonymous hemianopia?
Damage is on the opposite side of the brain from where vision is lost (e.g., right side brain injury = left side vision loss).
p.10
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What is the optic nerve?
The section from the optic nerve head to the chiasm.
p.39
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What initiates the accommodation reflex?
When gaze is shifted from a far to a near object.
p.35
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What does the upper optic radiation carry?
Fibres from the superior retinal quadrants, corresponding to the inferior visual field quadrants.
p.124
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
What does 'I' indicate in the acronym S N T I?
I stands for 'Impurities'.
p.61
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
What are some risk factors for developing cataracts?
Age, UV radiation, diabetes, trauma, congenital factors, uveitis, and steroid use.
p.91
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is the recommended action for Amaurosis Fugax?
ASAP referral to a stroke center or ER.
p.56
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
How is astigmatism diagnosed?
Through a comprehensive eye exam that includes visual acuity tests and corneal curvature measurements.
p.121
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What is the significance of detecting papilledema?
It indicates potential serious underlying conditions that require immediate medical attention.
p.53
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is myopia?
A refractive error where distant objects appear blurry (nearsightedness).
p.32
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is the type of visual field defect described?
Incomplete congruous RIGHT homonymous hemianopia.
p.25
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What are the two types of heteronymous hemianopia?
Bitemporal and binasal (rare).
p.32
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What does the MRI reveal in this case?
Hyposignal in the LEFT occipital lobe.
What type of cells do parvocellular LGN cells receive inputs from?
Small midget ganglion cells.
p.87
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is a characteristic change in arteries associated with arteriosclerosis?
Widening of arterial stripe.
p.81
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is Pan Retinal Photocoagulation (PRP)?
A laser treatment used to treat retinal diseases by creating small burns in the peripheral retina.
p.114
Eye Anatomy and Visual Pathway
What does OCT images reveal?
The layers within the retina.
What endocrine conditions can lead to papilledema?
Hypothyroidism and Addison disease.
p.62
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
What are the early symptoms of cortical cataracts?
Peripheral spicules with good vision initially.
p.103
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
How does tobacco use affect the risk of Macular Degeneration?
It is considered a risk factor for developing the condition.
p.80
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What are Anti-VEGF injections used for in the treatment of Diabetic Retinopathy?
They are used to treat Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) and include medications like Eylea, Avastin, and Lucentis.
p.36
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What is the effect of a lesion before the optic chiasm?
It affects vision in the same side eye (ipsilateral).
p.20
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is a common type of visual field defect?
Hemianopia, which is loss of vision in half of the visual field.
p.118
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
How does vision typically present in acute papilledema?
Vision is well preserved.
p.18
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What are the typical limits of a normal visual field?
Approximately 180 degrees horizontally and 130 degrees vertically.
p.96
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
Why can't one assume it's just a vitreous detachment?
Because it could lead to retinal detachment, which is a serious condition.
p.65
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
What factors can contribute to the development of posterior subcapsular cataracts?
Diabetes, steroid use, and prolonged exposure to UV light.
p.121
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What are the symptoms of papilledema?
Symptoms may include headaches, vision changes, and nausea.
p.121
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
How is papilledema diagnosed?
Through a comprehensive eye examination and imaging studies to assess intracranial pressure.
p.107
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
Why is beta-carotene avoided in the AREDS2 formulation?
It can increase the risk of lung cancer in smokers.
p.17
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is a visual field?
The entire area that can be seen when the eyes are fixed in one position.
p.44
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What occurs when the light is swung to the left eye in the presence of a left afferent defect?
The left eye paradoxically dilates.
p.15
Visual Pathway Defects and Their Causes
How many optic radiation tracts are there in the brain?
One tract on each side of the brain.
p.44
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What is the most likely cause of a left afferent limb defect?
Left optic nerve dysfunction.
p.8
Photoreceptors: Rods and Cones
What are the specialized neurons in the retina that convert light into electrical signals?
Photoreceptors: Rods and Cones.
What does the acronym 'U DEVILS' represent in the context of causes of papilledema?
Uremia, Drugs, Endocrine issues, Vitamin A overuse, Iron deficiency anemia, Last menstrual period, Sleep apnea, Steroid withdrawal.
p.1
Eye Anatomy and Visual Pathway
What is the role of the iris in the eye?
To control the size of the pupil and regulate the amount of light entering the eye.
p.86
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What are the types of arterial narrowing associated with hypertension?
General and segmental narrowing.
p.23
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What are some causes of horizontal visual field defects?
CRAO, acute ischemic optic neuropathy, retinal detachment, glaucoma, chronic atrophic papilledema, bilateral occipital lesions.
What condition related to the last menstrual period can contribute to papilledema?
Pregnancy or Norplant use.
p.82
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What complication of diabetic retinopathy can lead to the detachment of the retina?
Traction retinal detachment.
p.115
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is the primary characteristic of Dry Age-Related Macular Degeneration?
The gradual thinning of the macula.
p.6
Color Vision Mechanisms
What is the role of the brain in color vision?
The brain processes signals from cones to create the perception of color.
p.54
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is astigmatism?
A refractive error caused by nonspherical curvature of the cornea or lens, leading to distorted vision.
p.101
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What are two local treatments for retinoblastoma?
Laser therapy and cryotherapy.
p.31
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is homonymous hemianopia?
A visual field defect where the same side of the visual field is lost in both eyes.
p.21
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What type of visual field defect is caused by a lesion located before the chiasm?
Monocular visual field defect.
p.21
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is the characteristic of visual field loss in monocular VF defects?
One-sided loss on the same side (ipsilateral) as the lesion.
p.12
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What does the optic tract relay information from?
The optic chiasm to the ipsilateral LGN.
p.61
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
What is a cataract?
An opacity (clouding) of the normally clear lens.
p.33
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is an example of homonymous quadrantanopia?
Right inferior quadrantanopia.
p.120
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What results from the buildup of material at the lamina cribrosa?
Characteristic swelling of the optic nerve head.
p.120
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What causes disc swelling in papilledema?
Axoplasmic flow stasis with intra-axonal edema.
What is the structure of the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN)?
A laminar structure with 6 layers.
p.25
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What characterizes heteronymous hemianopia?
Opposite sides of each eye are affected.
p.3
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What does the visual pathway consist of?
A series of cells and synapses that carry visual information from the environment to the brain for processing.
p.53
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is astigmatism?
A refractive error caused by nonspherical curvature of the cornea or lens.
p.15
Visual Pathway Defects and Their Causes
What is the primary function of optic radiations?
To serve as a direct pathway to the primary visual cortex.
p.53
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is presbyopia?
A condition characterized by the loss of focusing ability of the lens, often associated with aging.
p.105
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What distinguishes Wet ARMD from Dry ARMD?
Wet ARMD involves the growth of abnormal blood vessels under the retina, leading to leakage and vision loss.
p.49
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What is cycloplegia?
Paralysis of the ciliary muscle which inhibits focusing ability or accommodation.
Which drugs are associated with causing papilledema?
Tetracycline, lithium, acutane, nalidixic acid, retinoids, cyclosporin, amiodarone, growth hormone, norplant, sulfa.
p.20
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What can cause visual field defects?
Conditions such as glaucoma, stroke, or retinal diseases.
p.26
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is hemianopia?
A visual field defect where half of the visual field is lost.
p.20
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
How are visual field defects diagnosed?
Through visual field testing, such as perimetry.
p.115
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is Nonexudative Age-Related Macular Degeneration commonly referred to as?
Dry Age-Related Macular Degeneration.
p.80
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is the purpose of laser treatment in Diabetic Retinopathy?
To treat focal leakage areas.
p.63
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
What is a cortical cataract?
A type of cataract that affects the outer edge of the lens, leading to vision impairment.
p.112
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is the significance of the breakdown of the Outer Blood-Retinal Barrier (BRB) in Wet AMD?
It allows fluid and proteins to leak into the retina, leading to vision loss.
p.86
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What are hard exudates?
Yellow-white lesions on the retina with well-defined edges, indicating lipid deposits.
p.27
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What are some causes of bitemporal hemianopia?
Pituitary tumor, craniopharyngioma, suprasellar meningioma, suprasellar aneurysm.
p.65
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
Where does a posterior subcapsular cataract develop?
At the back of the lens of the eye.
p.33
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What are the possible locations for homonymous quadrantanopia?
Left or Right, Superior or Inferior.
p.97
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What visual obstruction might a person experience with retinal detachment?
A shadow or curtain blocking part of the field of vision.
p.97
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What are some risk factors for retinal detachment?
High myopia, trauma, previous ocular surgery, age.
p.107
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
Which formulation of AREDS is preferred for managing Dry Type ARMD?
AREDS2 formulation, as it does not contain beta-carotene.
p.15
Visual Pathway Defects and Their Causes
What are optic radiations?
A collection of axons from relay neurons in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus.
How do cells in the LGN receive inputs?
Cells have monocular inputs from each of the 2 eyes.
p.103
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is the leading cause of legal blindness in the US?
Macular Degeneration (ARMD).
p.1
Eye Anatomy and Visual Pathway
What is the primary function of the cornea in the eye?
To refract light and help focus it onto the retina.
p.58
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is refraction in the context of vision?
A test to determine the prescription (Rx) for glasses.
p.114
Eye Anatomy and Visual Pathway
What is the purpose of a normal retina fundus photo?
To assess the health of the retina.
What is a potential diagnosis for a young female with recent weight gain after excluding MOVIES and UDEVILS?
Primary pseudotumor cerebri syndrome / idiopathic intracranial hypertension.
p.101
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is one treatment option for retinoblastoma that involves targeted drug delivery?
Ophthalmic artery chemosurgery.
p.6
Color Vision Mechanisms
What colors do S-cones, M-cones, and L-cones correspond to?
S-cones correspond to blue, M-cones to green, and L-cones to red.
p.131
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What does the 'V' in the MOVIES acronym indicate?
Venous obstructive disease.
p.1
Eye Anatomy and Visual Pathway
What is the function of the pupil?
To allow light to enter the eye.
p.104
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What are drusen?
Deposits that can accumulate in the retina, associated with macular degeneration.
p.117
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What causes Diabetic Macular Edema?
It is caused by damage to the blood vessels in the retina due to high blood sugar levels.
p.86
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is a macular star?
A specific pattern of exudates in the macula associated with retinal edema.
p.117
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What are the symptoms of Diabetic Macular Edema?
Symptoms include blurred or distorted vision and difficulty seeing colors.
p.106
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
How does Dry Type ARMD affect peripheral vision?
Peripheral vision remains intact.
p.124
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
What does 'T' signify in the acronym S N T I?
T stands for 'Temperature'.
p.34
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is homonymous quadrantanopia?
A visual field defect where a quarter of the visual field is lost on the same side in both eyes.
p.91
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
How is Amaurosis Fugax classified by the American Heart Association?
As a form of TIA (Transient Ischemic Attack).
p.121
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What is papilledema?
Swelling of the optic disc due to increased intracranial pressure.
p.88
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What type of vision loss is experienced during Amaurosis Fugax?
Total or altitudinal vision loss, described as 'like a window shade.'
p.44
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What does the Swinging Flashlight Test assess?
Pupillary light response and afferent pathways.
p.98
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What does 'off RD' refer to in relation to the macula?
It indicates that the macula is not directly affected by retinal detachment.
p.56
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What are common treatments for astigmatism?
Eyeglasses, contact lenses, or refractive surgery.
p.44
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What happens to the pupils when light is shone in the right eye during the Swinging Flashlight Test?
Bilateral pupil constriction occurs, indicating intact right afferent limb.
p.67
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is diabetes mellitus?
A chronic condition characterized by high blood sugar levels.
p.16
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What does the upper optic radiation carry?
Fibres from the superior retinal quadrants, corresponding to the inferior visual field quadrants.
p.68
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
How does blood sugar control affect the risk of Diabetic Retinopathy?
Poor control of blood sugar increases the risk.
p.105
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is the characteristic of Dry ARMD?
It involves the thinning of the macula and the presence of drusen.
p.16
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What does the lower optic radiation carry?
Fibres from the inferior retinal quadrants, corresponding to the superior visual field quadrants.
p.103
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What role does heredity play in Macular Degeneration?
It is a risk factor indicating genetic predisposition.
p.131
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What is papilledema?
Swelling of the optic disc due to increased intracranial pressure (ICP).
p.49
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What is the effect of cycloplegic agents on the eye?
They cause paralysis of the ciliary muscle, inhibiting accommodation.
p.69
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is a characteristic of the onset of diabetic retinopathy in Type II diabetes?
The exact onset may not be known.
p.118
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What is papilledema?
Swelling of the optic disc secondary to elevated intracranial pressure.
p.49
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What is the role of the ciliary muscle in vision?
It helps in focusing ability or accommodation.
p.36
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What happens to vision with a lesion after the optic chiasm?
It results in visual field defects in the opposite visual field (contralateral).
p.99
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is retinoblastoma?
The most common intraocular malignancy in children.
p.124
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
What does 'N' represent in the acronym S N T I?
N stands for 'Nutrients'.
p.65
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
What is a posterior subcapsular cataract?
A type of cataract that forms at the back of the lens, affecting vision.
p.91
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What diagnostic studies are urgent for Amaurosis Fugax?
MRI, urgent carotid and cardiac studies, and neurology consultation.
p.107
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is the management approach for Dry Type ARMD?
There are no cures; management includes vitamins (AREDS) that slow progression by 25%.
p.4
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
Where does the visual pathway end?
In the primary visual cortex of the occipital lobe.
p.15
Visual Pathway Defects and Their Causes
Where do optic radiations carry visual information?
To the visual cortex (striate cortex) along the calcarine fissure.
p.17
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What can cause visual field defects?
Conditions such as glaucoma, stroke, or retinal diseases.
p.74
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What type of tissue proliferation occurs in proliferative diabetic retinopathy?
Fibrous tissue proliferation.
p.5
Photoreceptors: Rods and Cones
What is the primary function of cones?
To detect color and provide sharp vision in bright light.
p.17
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is a common type of visual field defect?
Hemianopia, which is loss of vision in half of the visual field.
p.5
Photoreceptors: Rods and Cones
Where are rods predominantly located in the retina?
In the peripheral regions.
p.5
Photoreceptors: Rods and Cones
Where are cones predominantly located in the retina?
In the fovea, the central part of the retina.
p.6
Color Vision Mechanisms
What is color vision?
The ability to perceive differences in wavelengths of light as different colors.
p.23
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What typically causes horizontal visual field defects?
Disease in the distribution of the central retinal artery.
p.110
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What are common symptoms of Wet ARMD?
Hemorrhage, edema, metamorphopsia, and sudden decrease of vision.
p.62
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
What vision change is associated with nuclear cataracts?
A shift toward myopia and a color shift toward yellow.
p.26
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is heteronymous hemianopia?
A type of hemianopia where opposite sides of each eye are affected (temporal or nasal).
p.26
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is homonymous hemianopia?
A type of hemianopia where the same side of the visual field is affected (right or left).
p.113
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
How often are anti-VEGF injections administered for wet type ARMD?
Every 6 to 8 weeks by a retina specialist.
p.102
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is one treatment option for retinoblastoma that involves targeted drug delivery?
Ophthalmic artery chemosurgery.
p.119
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What is continuous with the optic nerve sheath?
The subarachnoid space of the brain.
p.106
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What are the key features of Dry Type ARMD?
Drusen and pigment layer atrophy.
p.123
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What does a dilated optic nerve sheath indicate?
It may indicate increased intracranial pressure.
p.12
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What do the optic tracts contain?
Axons from both the left and right eyes.
p.12
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What type of visual field information does each optic tract carry?
Information from only one half (right or left) of each eye’s visual field.
p.33
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is homonymous quadrantanopia?
A visual field defect where the same quadrant is affected in both eyes.
p.96
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is RD Management?
It refers to the management of retinal detachment, an emergent condition.
p.57
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is presbyopia?
A loss of focusing ability.
p.97
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is a common symptom of retinal detachment related to visual disturbances?
Sudden appearance of many floaters.
p.56
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is astigmatism?
A refractive error caused by an irregular shape of the cornea or lens, leading to blurred vision.
p.120
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What role does the optic nerve sheath play in papilledema?
It acts as a tourniquet to impede axoplasmic transport.
p.56
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What causes astigmatism?
An irregular curvature of the cornea or lens.
p.61
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
What are the main anatomical parts of the lens?
Capsule, cortex, and nucleus.
p.96
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What happens to the prognosis for good vision once the macula is off?
The prognosis for good vision decreases.
p.88
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What happens to vision after an episode of Amaurosis Fugax?
Vision returns to normal.
p.65
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
How are posterior subcapsular cataracts typically treated?
Through surgical removal of the cataract.
p.64
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
What is a nuclear cataract?
A type of cataract that forms in the nucleus of the lens, leading to clouding and vision impairment.
p.44
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What indicates a normal pupillary light response in a dark room?
Intact direct and consensual responses for both eyes.
p.44
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What does a Relative Afferent Pupillary Defect (RAPD) indicate?
A defect in the afferent pathway of the affected eye.
p.53
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is emmetropia?
A condition where the eye has no significant refractive error.
p.25
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is hemianopia?
A visual field defect where half of the visual field is lost.
p.64
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
How can nuclear cataracts be treated?
Through surgical removal of the cataract and replacement with an artificial lens.
p.5
Photoreceptors: Rods and Cones
What is the primary function of rods?
To detect light and enable vision in low-light conditions.
p.103
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What are some risk factors for Macular Degeneration?
Advanced age, heredity, drusen, and tobacco use.
p.89
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is Amaurosis Fugax?
A temporary loss of vision caused by a lack of blood flow to the retina.
p.67
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is a leading cause of blindness?
Diabetic retinopathy (DR).
p.25
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is homonymous hemianopia?
A visual field defect where the same side of the visual field is affected (right or left).
p.114
Eye Anatomy and Visual Pathway
What does Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) imaging help with?
Early detection of retinal conditions.
p.89
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
Can emboli be seen during a fundus exam in cases of Amaurosis Fugax?
Often no emboli are visible on fundus exam.
p.23
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What type of visual field defect is characterized by a horizontal defect?
Horizontal hemianopia or altitudinal visual field defect.
p.110
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What develops in Wet ARMD?
Choroidal neovascular membrane (CNV).
p.113
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What imaging techniques are used for monitoring changes in wet type ARMD?
Fluorescein Angiography (Fl Angiography) and OCT imaging.
p.112
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What does Wet AMD stand for?
Wet Age-related Macular Degeneration.
p.18
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is a normal visual field?
The area that can be seen when the eyes are fixed in one position, including peripheral vision.
p.117
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is Diabetic Macular Edema?
A condition characterized by swelling in the macula due to fluid leakage from retinal blood vessels in diabetic patients.
p.115
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What are drusen in the context of Dry Age-Related Macular Degeneration?
Small yellow deposits that form under the retina.
p.18
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What factors can affect the normal visual field?
Eye health, neurological conditions, and environmental factors.
p.101
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is the surgical option for retinoblastoma that involves removal of the eye?
Enucleation with prosthetic replacement.
p.86
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is edema of the disc?
Swelling of the optic disc due to increased intracranial pressure or other conditions.
p.104
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is a subretinal neovascular membrane?
An abnormal growth of new blood vessels beneath the retina, associated with macular degeneration.
p.117
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What are the treatment options for Diabetic Macular Edema?
Treatment options include anti-VEGF injections, corticosteroids, and laser therapy.
p.63
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
How are cortical cataracts typically managed?
Through surgical removal of the cataract when vision impairment affects daily activities.
p.38
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What is accommodation in the context of the eye?
The mechanism by which the eye changes refractive power by altering the shape of the lens to maintain focus at near.
p.116
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is Exudative Age-Related Macular Degeneration?
A type of macular degeneration characterized by the growth of abnormal blood vessels under the retina, leading to fluid leakage.
p.94
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What are flashes in the context of retinal detachment?
They occur when some strands of the vitreous remain attached to the retina.
p.60
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
How can myopia be corrected?
Using concave lenses in glasses or contact lenses.
p.22
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
In which population are optic nerve gliomas most commonly found?
They are most commonly found in children, often associated with neurofibromatosis type 1.
p.51
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
Can cycloplegics and mydriatics be used together?
Yes, they are often used in combination for comprehensive eye examinations.
p.40
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What is the accommodation reflex?
The process by which the eye adjusts its focus for near or distant objects.
p.89
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What causes Amaurosis Fugax?
Temporary lack of blood flow to the retina from emboli in the central retinal artery.
p.17
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is the significance of visual field testing?
It helps in diagnosing and monitoring eye diseases and neurological conditions.
p.87
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What does A/V nicking indicate?
It indicates changes in the retinal blood vessels due to hypertension.
p.90
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is Amaurosis Fugax?
A temporary loss of vision in one eye, often described as a 'curtain' descending over the visual field.
p.103
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What are drusen in relation to Macular Degeneration?
They are yellow deposits that can indicate risk for the disease.
p.90
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What are common causes of Amaurosis Fugax?
It can be caused by retinal artery occlusion, embolism, or transient ischemic attacks.
p.54
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is emmetropia?
A condition where the eye is able to focus light correctly on the retina, resulting in clear vision.
p.101
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What factors influence the treatment options for retinoblastoma?
Age of the child, whether the cancer is unilateral or bilateral, and if the cancer has spread.
p.131
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What does the 'O' in the MOVIES acronym represent?
Obstructive hydrocephalus.
p.102
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What factors influence the treatment options for retinoblastoma?
Age of the child, whether the cancer is unilateral or bilateral, and if the cancer has spread.
p.104
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is macular degeneration?
A disease of unknown etiology that affects the macula.
p.80
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What does PAN RETINAL PHOTOCOAGULATION (PRP) involve?
It involves laser treatment to prevent vision loss in Diabetic Retinopathy.
p.63
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
Where does a cortical cataract typically develop in the eye?
At the outer edge of the lens.
p.11
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
Where is the optic chiasm located?
Just above the pituitary gland.
p.115
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What visual symptoms may occur with Dry Age-Related Macular Degeneration?
Blurriness or distortion in central vision.
p.131
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What does the 'S' in the MOVIES acronym represent?
Secondary causes of pseudotumor cerebri-like syndrome.
p.50
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is a goal of treating Iritis?
To prevent adhesion of the iris to the lens (posterior synechia).
p.45
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What is the function of the efferent pathway in the pupillary light reflex?
It transmits signals from the brain to the sphincter muscle to constrict the pupil.
p.130
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What type of trauma can lead to papilledema?
Cerebral trauma or hemorrhage.
p.60
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is refractive error?
A vision problem that occurs when the shape of the eye prevents light from focusing directly on the retina.
p.94
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What happens when fluid seeps behind the retina?
It is a sign of retinal detachment.
p.85
Eye Anatomy and Visual Pathway
How does the blood supply to the eye differ from other organs?
The eye has a dual blood supply from both the central retinal artery and the choroidal circulation.
p.85
Eye Anatomy and Visual Pathway
What is the significance of the blood-retinal barrier?
It protects the retina from harmful substances in the bloodstream.
p.59
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What are the two most common refractive surgery procedures?
Laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) and Photorefractive keratectomy (PRK).
What type of cells do magnocellular LGN cells receive inputs from?
Large parasol ganglion cells.
p.74
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
Why is proliferative diabetic retinopathy considered more dangerous?
Due to complications like neovascularization and retinal detachment.
p.113
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is the management approach for wet type ARMD?
Anti-VEGF injections, PDT, or laser obliteration of CNV.
p.90
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
How long does Amaurosis Fugax typically last?
It usually lasts a few minutes to an hour.
p.86
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What type of hemorrhages can occur due to hypertension?
Flame (splinter) hemorrhages.
p.23
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What does CRAO stand for?
Central Retinal Artery Occlusion.
p.9
Color Vision Mechanisms
What is color vision?
The ability to perceive differences in wavelengths of light as distinct colors.
p.90
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
Is Amaurosis Fugax usually bilateral or unilateral?
It is typically unilateral, affecting one eye.
p.131
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What does the 'I' in the MOVIES acronym refer to?
Infection (abscess, meningitis).
p.6
Color Vision Mechanisms
What is color blindness?
A condition where individuals have difficulty distinguishing certain colors due to cone deficiencies.
p.131
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What does the 'E' in the MOVIES acronym stand for?
Essential hypertension / malignant hypertension.
p.117
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
How is Diabetic Macular Edema diagnosed?
It is diagnosed through a comprehensive eye examination, including optical coherence tomography (OCT).
p.45
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What is the function of the sphincter muscle in the eye?
It controls the size of the pupil.
p.43
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What is the pupillary light reflex?
A reflex that controls the diameter of the pupil in response to light intensity.
p.41
Pupillary Light Reflex
What is the nature of the pupillary light reflex?
It is consensual; light directed in one eye produces pupil constriction in both eyes.
p.38
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What condition weakens accommodation with age?
Presbyopia, due to a decrease in lens elasticity and decline of ciliary muscle power.
p.30
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is homonymous hemianopia?
Loss of half (right or left) of the visual field on the same side in both eyes.
p.38
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
Which structure controls the near triad?
The Edinger-Westphal nucleus.
p.13
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What is the location of the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN) in relation to the optic tracts?
Anterior to the optic radiations and posterior to the optic tracts.
p.85
Eye Anatomy and Visual Pathway
What is the role of the ciliary arteries?
They supply blood to the choroid and ciliary body.
p.130
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What are arachnoid adhesions and how do they relate to papilledema?
They can be a cause of papilledema due to obstruction of cerebrospinal fluid flow.
p.40
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What triggers the accommodation reflex?
The need to focus on objects at varying distances.
p.8
Photoreceptors: Rods and Cones
How are rods sensitive to light?
They are sensitive to low light levels.
p.5
Photoreceptors: Rods and Cones
How many types of cones are there, and what do they detect?
Three types; they detect red, green, and blue light.
p.131
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What does the 'M' in the MOVIES acronym stand for?
Mass lesions (brain tumor).
p.6
Photoreceptors: Rods and Cones
How many types of cones are there in the human eye?
Three types: S-cones (short), M-cones (medium), and L-cones (long).
p.90
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What should be done if someone experiences Amaurosis Fugax?
They should seek immediate medical attention, as it may indicate a risk of stroke.
p.86
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What are cotton wool spots?
Soft, fluffy white patches on the retina indicating retinal ischemia.
p.20
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is the significance of identifying visual field defects?
It helps in diagnosing underlying health conditions and planning treatment.
p.36
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What is the significance of the optic chiasm in visual processing?
It is where the optic nerves partially cross, affecting how visual information is processed from each eye.
p.80
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is vitrectomy?
A surgical procedure used to treat advanced Diabetic Retinopathy.
p.47
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What causes pupil constriction?
Contraction of the iris sphincter or relaxation of the iris dilator.
p.102
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What are two local treatments for retinoblastoma?
Laser therapy and cryotherapy.
p.112
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What are the typical findings in a Fluorescein Angiogram for Wet AMD?
Areas of hyperfluorescence indicating leakage and neovascularization.
p.79
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What other health condition should be controlled in the treatment of Diabetic Retinopathy?
Hypertension and other systemic diseases.
p.42
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What type of muscle is the sphincter muscle and what does it do?
It is controlled by the parasympathetic system and constricts pupil size.
p.9
Color Vision Mechanisms
What is the role of L-cones in color vision?
They are sensitive to long wavelengths of light, primarily red.
p.50
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is one treatment for Iritis?
Immobilizing the iris for pain relief.
p.45
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What type of pathway is the afferent pathway in the pupillary light reflex?
It carries sensory information from the retina to the brain.
p.130
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What condition can cause papilledema due to increased pressure in the brain?
Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (pseudotumor cerebri).
p.94
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
Is retinal detachment typically spontaneous?
Yes, it is typically spontaneous.
p.60
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is astigmatism?
A condition where the cornea or lens is irregularly shaped, causing blurred vision.
p.60
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is the purpose of regular eye exams in relation to refractive errors?
To detect and monitor changes in vision and adjust prescriptions as needed.
p.51
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What conditions might require the use of mydriatics?
Fundoscopic examinations and certain eye surgeries.
p.48
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What typically causes mydriasis?
Low light conditions or certain medications.
p.81
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is the purpose of Anti-VEGF injections?
To inhibit vascular endothelial growth factor and reduce abnormal blood vessel growth in the retina.
p.1
Eye Anatomy and Visual Pathway
What is the function of the lens in the eye?
To focus light onto the retina by changing shape.
p.5
Photoreceptors: Rods and Cones
What is the role of photopigments in photoreceptors?
They absorb light and initiate the phototransduction process.
p.1
Eye Anatomy and Visual Pathway
What is the vitreous humor?
A gel-like substance that fills the space between the lens and the retina.
p.54
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is myopia?
A refractive error also known as nearsightedness, where distant objects appear blurry.
p.1
Eye Anatomy and Visual Pathway
What is the sclera?
The white outer layer of the eyeball that provides structure and protection.
p.54
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is hyperopia?
A refractive error also known as farsightedness, where close objects appear blurry.
p.23
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is acute ischemic optic neuropathy?
A condition that can cause horizontal visual field defects.
p.113
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What are some examples of anti-VEGF injections used in wet type ARMD management?
Avastin, Lucentis, Eylea, Macugen.
p.63
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
What visual symptoms are associated with cortical cataracts?
Blurred or distorted vision, especially in bright light.
p.55
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What happens to light in a normal cornea without astigmatism?
Light is refracted and focused equally in all meridians.
p.50
Eye Anatomy and Visual Pathway
What is the purpose of a Dilated Fundus Exam?
To examine the interior surface of the eye, including the retina, optic disc, and blood vessels.
p.9
Color Vision Mechanisms
What is color blindness?
A condition where individuals have difficulty distinguishing certain colors due to the absence or malfunction of cones.
p.50
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What does stabilizing the blood aqueous barrier help with?
It helps in managing inflammation and maintaining eye health.
p.45
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What type of innervation does the sphincter muscle receive?
Parasympathetic innervation.
p.22
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
Where does an optic nerve glioma typically occur?
Along the optic nerve, which transmits visual information from the eye to the brain.
p.48
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What is miosis?
The constriction of the pupil.
p.118
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What is a common characteristic of papilledema in terms of presentation?
It frequently presents as bilateral and symmetric.
p.9
Photoreceptors: Rods and Cones
How many types of cones are there in the human eye?
Three types: S-cones (short wavelength), M-cones (medium wavelength), and L-cones (long wavelength).
p.110
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What can occur as a result of repeat episodes in Wet ARMD?
Fibrosis and macular scar.
p.55
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What characterizes astigmatism in the cornea?
The surface has a stronger curvature in one meridian than in the other.
p.113
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is the purpose of laser obliteration in wet type ARMD management?
To treat choroidal neovascularization (CNV).
p.47
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What causes pupil dilation?
Contraction of the iris dilator or relaxation of the iris sphincter.
p.42
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What is the role of the dilator muscle in the pupillary light reflex?
It is controlled by the sympathetic system and dilates pupil size.
p.37
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is a scotoma?
A localized area of visual loss in the occipital region.
p.50
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What are cycloplegic drops used for?
To dilate the pupil and temporarily paralyze the ciliary muscle for various eye examinations and treatments.
p.116
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What role do anti-VEGF medications play in treating Exudative Age-Related Macular Degeneration?
They inhibit the growth of abnormal blood vessels and reduce fluid leakage.
p.122
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What is the significance of assessing the optic nerve sheath?
It helps in diagnosing conditions related to the optic nerve and intracranial pressure.
p.70
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is a characteristic feature of hard exudates in nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy?
They appear in a circinate configuration.
p.22
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What are common symptoms of optic nerve glioma?
Vision loss, proptosis (bulging of the eye), and changes in eye movement.
p.59
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
Name two other types of refractive surgeries.
Small incision lenticule extraction (SMILE) and phakic intraocular lenses (IOL).
p.48
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
How do miosis and mydriasis affect vision?
Miosis reduces light entry, while mydriasis increases it.
p.79
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is a recommended yearly procedure for managing Diabetic Retinopathy (DR)?
Yearly dilated eye examination.
p.104
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is retinal pigment epithelial atrophy?
A condition where the retinal pigment epithelium deteriorates, often seen in macular degeneration.
p.109
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What is the purpose of the Amsler Grid?
To self-monitor vision daily.
p.37
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
Which visual field defect is characterized by loss of vision in the left visual field?
Right Homonymous Hemianopia.
p.109
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
How should you test your vision using the Amsler Grid?
Test each eye separately.
p.37
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What visual field defect results from damage to the left optic tract or radiation?
Right Homonymous Hemianopia.
p.45
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
Where are the pretectal nuclei located?
In the midbrain, involved in the pupillary light reflex.
p.45
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What is the role of the Edinger-Westphal nucleus?
It provides parasympathetic innervation to the sphincter muscle.
p.43
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What happens to the pupils when exposed to bright light?
The pupils constrict to reduce the amount of light entering the eye.
p.43
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
Which cranial nerves are involved in the pupillary light reflex?
Cranial nerve II (Optic nerve) and cranial nerve III (Oculomotor nerve).
p.122
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What does a dilated optic nerve sheath indicate?
It may indicate increased intracranial pressure or other pathological conditions.
p.130
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What vascular condition can lead to papilledema?
Cavernous or dural sinus thrombosis.
p.13
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What is the function of the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN)?
It serves as a relay center in the thalamus that receives sensory input from the retina via optic tracts.
p.70
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What vascular changes are observed in nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy?
Venous engorgement and beading.
p.59
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is orthokeratology?
A method of correcting refractive error using specially designed contact lenses to reshape the cornea.
p.40
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What is the effect of the accommodation reflex on pupil size?
The pupils constrict to enhance focus on near objects.
p.6
Color Vision Mechanisms
What is the most common type of color blindness?
Red-green color blindness.
p.115
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
Is there a known cure for Dry Age-Related Macular Degeneration?
No, there is currently no cure.
p.102
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What is the surgical option for retinoblastoma that involves removal of the eye?
Enucleation with prosthetic replacement.
p.130
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What is the primary action required when papilledema is diagnosed?
An immediate search for the cause.
p.41
Pupillary Light Reflex
What does the pupillary light reflex involve?
Adjustments in pupil size with changes in light levels.
p.116
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What are the main symptoms of Exudative Age-Related Macular Degeneration?
Symptoms include blurred vision, distortion of straight lines, and dark or empty areas in the central vision.
p.116
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
How does Exudative Age-Related Macular Degeneration differ from Dry Age-Related Macular Degeneration?
Exudative involves fluid leakage and abnormal blood vessel growth, while Dry is characterized by the gradual thinning of the retina.
p.116
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What treatments are available for Exudative Age-Related Macular Degeneration?
Treatments include anti-VEGF injections, photodynamic therapy, and laser surgery.
p.41
Pupillary Light Reflex
If light is shone in the right eye, what happens to the left pupil?
The left pupil also constricts consensually.
p.70
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What occurs in the capillaries during nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (DR)?
Capillaries leak and are occluded.
p.60
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What are some surgical options for correcting refractive errors?
Laser eye surgery (like LASIK) and lens implants.
p.51
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What are cycloplegics used for?
To temporarily paralyze the ciliary muscle of the eye, affecting accommodation.
p.48
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What is mydriasis?
The dilation of the pupil.
p.40
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What happens to the lens during the accommodation reflex when focusing on near objects?
The lens becomes thicker and more curved.
p.112
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What does a Fluorescein Angiogram help visualize in Wet AMD?
It helps visualize the leakage of dye from blood vessels in the retina.
p.11
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What type of decussation occurs at the optic chiasm?
Partial decussation (cross over) of optic nerve fibers.
p.42
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What is the purpose of the pupillary light reflex?
To adjust the amount of light reaching the retina and protect photoreceptors from bright lights.
p.130
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
How is papilledema diagnosed?
By ophthalmoscopy, often followed by brain and orbit MRI with and without contrast, and sometimes a lumbar puncture.
p.109
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What should you focus on while using the Amsler Grid?
Look at the dot in the center.
p.38
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What happens during accommodation when switching focus from a far object to a near one?
An automatic response occurs to adjust the lens shape.
p.43
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What is the purpose of the pupillary light reflex?
To protect the retina from excessive light and to improve visual acuity.
p.38
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What are the components of the near triad?
Convergence, miosis, and accommodation.
p.41
Pupillary Light Reflex
What is the consensual response in the pupillary light reflex?
The change in pupil size in the eye opposite to the eye to which the light is directed.
p.60
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What are common types of refractive errors?
Myopia (nearsightedness), hyperopia (farsightedness), and astigmatism.
p.60
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What role do contact lenses play in correcting refractive errors?
They provide a direct correction to the refractive error on the surface of the eye.
p.59
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What are the types of corrective lenses for refractive error?
Glasses (SV, DVO, NVO, bifocal, trifocal, PAL, occupational, sports, safety) and contact lenses (soft lenses, RGP hard lenses, hybrid lenses, scleral lenses, toric lenses, multifocal, monovision, orthokeratology).
p.48
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What typically causes miosis?
Bright light or certain medications.
p.40
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What role do the ciliary muscles play in the accommodation reflex?
They contract to change the shape of the lens.
p.113
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What should be monitored in patients with wet type ARMD?
Recurrence and the condition of the other eye.
p.18
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
How is a normal visual field assessed?
Through visual field tests such as perimetry.
p.63
Cataracts: Symptoms and Management
What is a common risk factor for developing cortical cataracts?
Aging, as well as diabetes and prolonged exposure to UV light.
p.115
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What lifestyle changes can help manage Dry Age-Related Macular Degeneration?
Healthy diet, regular exercise, and avoiding smoking.
p.11
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What happens to visual fields after passing through the optic chiasm?
They split into two halves.
p.42
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
How do the actions of the sphincter and dilator muscles relate to each other?
The action of the dilator is antagonistic to that of the sphincter; the dilator must relax for the sphincter to decrease pupil size.
p.41
Pupillary Light Reflex
What is the direct response in the pupillary light reflex?
The change in pupil size in the eye to which the light is directed.
p.41
Pupillary Light Reflex
What happens to the pupil when light is shone in the right eye?
The right pupil constricts (direct response).
p.13
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
How many LGNs are there in the brain?
One LGN in each hemisphere.
p.70
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What are the red spots observed in nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy?
Hemorrhages and microaneurysms.
p.70
Diabetic Retinopathy: Types and Treatment
What are cotton wool spots?
They are a feature seen in nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy.
p.22
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What is the typical treatment for optic nerve glioma?
Treatment may include observation, surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation therapy, depending on the tumor's size and symptoms.
p.59
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is the purpose of corneal inlays?
To improve near vision in patients with presbyopia.
p.9
Color Vision Mechanisms
What is the role of S-cones in color vision?
They are sensitive to short wavelengths of light, primarily blue.
p.11
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
Which retinal fibers cross over at the optic chiasm?
Only nasal retinal fibers.
p.9
Color Vision Mechanisms
What is the role of M-cones in color vision?
They are sensitive to medium wavelengths of light, primarily green.
p.50
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is Cycloplegic Refraction used for?
Pre LASIK assessments, evaluations in children, and addressing latent hyperopia.
p.130
Papilledema: Causes and Diagnosis
What is the focus of treatment for papilledema?
Directed at the underlying condition causing it.
p.95
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What should be done for new onset of flashes or floaters?
Refer for a dilated fundus exam (DFE) to determine if retinal detachment (RD) is present.
p.95
Visual Field Defects and Their Causes
What can untreated retinal detachment (RD) lead to?
Partial or total loss of retinal function, potentially resulting in blindness.
p.43
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
What is the consensual response in the pupillary light reflex?
Both pupils constrict when light is shone in one eye.
p.22
Optic Nerve and Chiasm Function
What is an optic nerve glioma?
A type of tumor that affects the optic nerve.
p.51
Accommodation and Pupillary Light Reflex
How do cycloplegics affect vision?
They can blur near vision due to paralysis of the ciliary muscle.
p.59
Refractive Errors and Correction Methods
What is radial keratotomy?
A surgical procedure that involves making incisions in the cornea to correct myopia.
